Illyrian weaponry played an important role in the makeup of Illyrian armies and in conflicts involving the Illyrians. Of all the ancients sources the most important and abundant writings are those of Ennius (239 -169 BC), a Roman poet of Messapian origin. Weapons of all sorts were also placed intact in the graves of Illyrian warriors and provide a detailed picture for archaeologists on the distribution and development of Illyrian weaponry.
Shields were used among the Illyrians from the end of the Bronze Age, but very little is known about the early shields until the Iron Age. In this period, Illyrian shields were made of wood and leather and as a result no such example has survived. During the Iron Age a metal plate-cover was attached to the shields. The most common Illyrian shield was the circular shield, although northern Illyrians and the Japodes also used an oval or rectangular type. The circular shield was small, and was decorated with embedded circles and semicircles on the sides. It resembled the Macedonian shield of the time, but differed in the number of circles, which were a symbolic decoration. One of the best examples of the Illyrian circular shield, coated in bronze, was found in a Liburnian necropolis in Nin and dates from the 4th century BC. The circular shield was widely used from Glasinac in Bosnia to Albania. They are depicted on Illyrian city coins of Lezhë and Shkodër. Similar to the Illyrian oval shield in northern Illyria was the shield that the Celts brought with them during the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. The Celtic shield was wooden and oblong, with an iron boss. [1] [2]
Breast armour was a rare and very interesting part of Illyrian armor. A type of breast-armor made of bronze plate was only used by northern Illyrians. Up to now only three of these have been discovered in Novo Mesto, Sticna-Verpole and St. Vid. All date before 500 BC. Other Illyrian did not use breast armor. Only the Glasinac Illyrians used a type of breast armor if breast armor can be considered a jacket made of cloth or leather with parts of bronze. Another form of body armor was a bronze pectoral that may have protected part of the back as well. It was more like a disc "breastplate" of 10 cm in diameter. [3]
In the 7th century BC, bronze greaves were used by Illyrian warriors. It is possible that Illyrians used leather greaves in an earlier time, the same as those used by the Mycenaeans, but nothing is known about them. Bronze greaves first appear among the Illyrians in southern Illyria where examples have been found dating to the 7th century BC, and also from Glasinac from the same period. The bronze greaves discovered in a prince's grave in Gllasinac are interesting especially for the decorations depicted on them. Warships, circles and triangular motives are carved on the outer surfaces. The two last-mentioned decorations were believed to protect the warrior while in combat. Up to the Roman era bronze greaves were rarely used and only by wealthy warriors. [3]
Helmets are found more abundantly in Illyrian graves because of their higher status. Bronze helmets were made by the northern Illyrian from the 7th century BC. At that time and probably earlier the conical helmet was used. Later in these areas the Shmarjet helmet, named after Shmarjet of Novo Mesto, was used by the Japodes. [4]
This very interesting type of helmet was similar to the Japodian round caps. They were made from the skeletons of bushes and painted with clay. Round bronze discs and studs were often embedded around the helmet. There were two varieties, one with a wicker base and one sewn together with chain mail. Up to now thirty Shmarjet helmets have been found. Among the northern Illyrians the bronze helmet developed into the conical or pot helmet. [5] The conical helmet was used in the 6th century BC and sometimes had a plume. From the 5th-4th century BC under the influence of the Etruscans and other Italik peoples, the Negau helmet was used also by the northern Illyrians. The Agrianes who were in close contact with the Macedons and Thracians used the Phrygian type helmet.
The most important and widespread helmet was the "Illyrian type helmet" which had its origins in the Peloponnese, ancient Greece. [6] Helmets of this type have been discovered in many sites in Albania, Bosnia, Croatia (near the coast), North Macedonia, Kosovo and Serbia. Many scientists date the oldest Illyrian helmets from the 7th century BC Greece and according to them later helmets found in southern Illyria also from the 7th century BC are imports from Greece. However, other experts, especially the Albanian archaeologist Hasan Ceka, present arguments in favor of the indigenous Illyrian helmet. According to Ceka the Illyrian helmet is an original Illyrian type of helmet dating from the 7th century BC and used up to the 2nd century BC, and not only up to the 4th century BC, as thought earlier. Proof of such late use is offered by depictions of the helmet on Illyrian coins, especially those of king Gentius. Helmets were a privilege limited to the minority of warriors who could afford or obtain them.
The main Illyrian fighting sword was the sica, a short single-edged curved sword used by the Thraex gladiators in the Roman world. The sica was developed during the Bronze Age and was similar to the Greek machaira. It was originally depicted as a curved sword with a blade about 16–18 inches (41–46 centimetres) long. The distinctive shape was designed to get around the sides of an opponent's shield in order to stab or slash him in the back. Although the sica was used by many peoples around the Balkans, the Romans regarded the sica as a distinctive Illyrian weapon, used as well by inhabitants of Dalmatia and present day Croatia, parts of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Albania. Another Illyrian sword type was the fighting-sword, which was 20–30 cm long. Short curved swords and long swords were also used. In addition, Illyrians used various knives.
The Illyrians used the thrusting spears and the sibyna, which resembled a boar spear. The sibyna was a long, metallic spear and is commonly found all over Illyria, but especially in the necropolis of Bosnia.
The bow and arrow, used by Illyrians from the 2nd millennium BC, became an important weapon for the Illyrian infantry. Among the axes used were battle axes and single handed axes. Chariots were only known to be used by the Daunians and northern Illyrians in Slovenia from depictions on Daunian stele and Illyrian situla. They may have been widespread all over Illyria, but not a single one has been discovered.
Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields. Hoplite soldiers used the phalanx formation to be effective in war with fewer soldiers. The formation discouraged the soldiers from acting alone, for this would compromise the formation and minimize its strengths. The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens – propertied farmers and artisans – who were able to afford a linen or bronze armour suit and weapons. It also appears in the stories of Homer, but it is thought that its use began in earnest around the 7th century BC, when weapons became cheap during the Iron Age and ordinary citizens were able to provide their own weapons. Most hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training. Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the epilektoi or logades since they were picked from the regular citizen infantry. These existed at times in Athens, Sparta, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse, among other places. Hoplite soldiers made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies.
The Iapydes were an ancient people who dwelt north of and inland from the Liburnians, off the Adriatic coast and eastwards of the Istrian peninsula. They occupied the interior of the country between the Colapis (Kupa) and Oeneus (Una) rivers, and the Velebit mountain range which separated them from the coastal Liburnians. Their territory covered the central inlands of modern Croatia and Una River Valley in today's Bosnia and Herzegovina. Archaeological documentation confirms their presence in these countries at least from 9th century BC, and they persisted in their area longer than a millennium. The ancient written documentation on inland Iapydes is scarcer than on the adjacent coastal peoples that had more frequent maritime contacts with ancient Greeks and Romans.
The Illyrians were a group of Indo-European-speaking people who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan populations, along with the Thracians and Greeks.
The Iapygians or Apulians were an Indo-European-speaking people, dwelling in an eponymous region of the southeastern Italian Peninsula named Iapygia between the beginning of the first millennium BC and the first century BC. They were divided into three tribal groups: the Daunians, Peucetians and Messapians.
Within the boundaries of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina, there have been many layers of prehistoric cultures whose creation and disappearance are linked to migrations of unidentified ethnic groups.
The sica is a short sword or large dagger of ancient Illyrians, Thracians, and Dacians, it was also used in Ancient Rome, originating in the Hallstatt culture. It was originally depicted as a curved sword and many examples have been found in what are today Croatia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania. It is also depicted on Trajan's Column; notably the Dacian king Decebalus is depicted dying by suicide with one.
The pileus was a brimless felt cap worn in Ancient Greece, Etruria, Illyria, later also introduced in Ancient Rome. The pileus also appears on Apulian red-figure pottery.
Illyrian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the Illyrian peoples, a group of tribes who spoke the Illyrian languages and inhabited part of the western Balkan Peninsula from at least the 8th century BC until the 7th century AD. The available written sources are very tenuous. They consist largely of personal and place names, and a few glosses from Classical sources.
The Illyrian Kingdom was an Illyrian political entity that existed on the western part of the Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. Regardless of the number of the alternately ruling dynasties, of their tribal affiliation, and of the actual extension of their kingdom, it represented an alliance of Illyrian tribes that united under the rulership of a single leader, expressly referred to as "King of the Illyrians" in ancient historical records.
The Illyrian type helmet is a style of bronze helmet, which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its forms. It originated in Peloponnese, ancient Greece, and was developed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Accurate representations on Corinthian vases are sufficient to indicate that the Illyrian type helmet was developed before 600 BC. The helmet is named today as Illyrian type for convenience due to many initial archaeological discoveries coming from the region of Illyria.
The history of Taulanti invasion of macedon of the Illyrians spans from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC up to the 1st century AD in the region of Illyria and in southern Italy where the Iapygian civilization flourished.
The Daunians were an Iapygian tribe that inhabited northern Apulia in classical antiquity. Two other Iapygian tribes, the Peucetians and the Messapians, inhabited central and southern Apulia respectively. All three tribes spoke the Messapic language, but had developed separate archaeological cultures by the seventh century BC.
The history of Thracian warfare spans from the 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Thracians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Thracian tribes.
The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia, populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Dacians too.
The Glasinac-Mati culture is an archaeological culture, which first developed during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the western Balkan Peninsula in an area which encompassed much of modern Albania to the south, Kosovo to the east, Montenegro, southeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of western Serbia to the north. It is named after the Glasinac and Mati type site areas, located in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania respectively.
Illyrian coinage which began in the 6th century BC continued up to the 1st century of Roman rule. It was the southern Illyrians who minted the first coins followed by the northern Illyrian during the Roman era. Illyrian coins have also been found in other areas apart from Illyria, such ancient Macedonia, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt.
A Daunian stele is a type of stone funerary monument constructed by the Daunians, an Iapygian tribe which inhabited Apulia in classical antiquity. Daunian stelae were made from the end of the 8th century BC to the 6th century BC. They consist of a parallelepiped-shaped plate with a protrusion on the upper side and decoration on all four sides. Sizes vary between 40 and 130 cm in height, and consequently, between 20 and 80 cm in width while the thickness is between 3 and 12 cm.
The Gradistë belt-plate is an Illyrian silvered bronze belt-plate found in the village of Gradistë in south-eastern Albania near Lake Ohrid. The decorative belt-plate dates from the early 3rd century BC around the year 280 BC. It depicts Illyrian warriors in combat both on foot and on horseback with a giant snake-dragon on the left and an unknown dead character with a face mask. The belt-plate shows the typical southern Illyrian shield used in southern Illyria and the Illyrian helmet. The snake in the side symbolizes the religious role it played in the religion of the Illyrians According to several archaeologists the shields depicted in the Gradistë artifact indicate a widespread use of that particular shield type among Illyrians and Ancient Macedonians.
The military nature of Mycenaean Greece in the Late Bronze Age is evident by the numerous weapons unearthed, warrior and combat representations in contemporary art, as well as by the preserved Greek Linear B records. The Mycenaeans invested in the development of military infrastructure with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centres. This militaristic ethos inspired later Ancient Greek tradition, and especially Homer's epics, which are focused on the heroic nature of the Mycenaean-era warrior élite.
The Culture of ancient Illyria or Illyrian culture begins to be distinguished by increasingly clear features during the Middle Bronze Age and especially at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Ceramics as a typical element is characterized by the extensive use of shapes with two handles protruding from the edge as well as decoration with geometric motifs. At this time the first fortified settlements were established. The local metallurgy produced various types of weapons on the basis of Aegean prototypes with an elaboration of artistic forms. The main tools were the axes of the local types "Dalmato-Albanian" and "Shkodran", as well as the southern type of double ax. Spiritual culture is also expressed by a burial rite with mounds (tumuli) in which a rich material of archaeological artifacts has been found.
