Large flying fox

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Large flying fox
Wilhelma Kalong-Flughund Pteropus vampyrus 0513.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Pteropodidae
Genus: Pteropus
Species:
P. vampyrus
Binomial name
Pteropus vampyrus
Large Flying Fox area.png
Large flying fox range
Synonyms
  • Vespertilio vampyrusLinnaeus, 1758
  • Pteropus giganteus(Brünnich, 1825)

The large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus, formerly Pteropus giganteus), also known as the greater flying fox, Malayan flying fox, Malaysian flying fox, large fruit bat, kalang, or kalong, is a southeast Asian species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. [3] Despite its scientific name, it feeds exclusively on fruits, nectar, and flowers, like the other flying foxes of the genus Pteropus . It is noted for being one of the largest bats. [4] As with nearly all other Old World fruit bats, it lacks the ability to echolocate but compensates for it with well-developed eyesight. [5]

Contents

Taxonomy

P. livingstonii

P. voeltzkowi

"vampyrus" group

P. dasymallus

P. pumilus

P. rodricensis

P. vampyrus

P. lylei

P. medius

P. aldabrensis

P. rufus

P. seychellensis *

P. niger *

P. seychellensis *

P. niger *

P. pselaphon

Location of the large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) relative to some other members of its genus [6]

The large flying fox was one of the many mammal species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae , receiving the name Vespertilio vampyrus. [2] The holotype was collected on Java. [7] : 70  Its species name "vampyrus" is derived from Slavic "wampir" meaning "blood-sucking ghost or demon: vampire". [4] This name was chosen in reference to its "alleged blood-sucking habits", [7] : 87  although it is entirely vegetarian and largely frugivorous. [4]

Based on phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA, the closest relative of the large flying fox is the Rodrigues flying fox (Pteropus rodricensis). [6] Because the genus Pteropus is so speciose, it is further subdivided into species groups. The large flying fox is the namesake of the "vampyrus" group, which also includes the following species: [6]

Description

The large flying fox is among the largest species of bat. [4] It weighs 0.65–1.1 kg (1.4–2.4 lb) and has a wingspan of up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). [8] [9] Its head-body length is 27–32 cm (11–13 in). [10] Its forearm length is 180–220 mm (7.1–8.7 in). [4] As is common with most megabats, it has a fox-like face. It lacks a tail and has pointed ears. The hairs on much of its body are long and woolly, but are shorter and more erect on the upper back. [4] The mantle hairs tend to be the longest. [11] The color and texture of the coat differ between sexes and age classes. [12] Males tend to have slightly stiffer and thicker coats than females. [4] Immature individuals are almost all dull gray-brown. [8] Young have a dark-colored mantle that becomes lighter in males when they mature. [4] The head has hairs that range in color from mahogany-red and orange-ochreous to blackish. The ventral areas are brown or blackish, tinged with chocolate, gray or silver. [12] The mantle can vary from pale dirty-buff to orange-yellow, while the chest is usually dark-golden brown or dark russet. [4] The large flying fox has a large and robust skull. The dental formula is 2.1.3.22.1.3.3. It has a total of 34 teeth. [11] [13] The large flying fox's wings are short and somewhat rounded at the tips. This allows them to fly slowly, but with great maneuverability. [4] The wing membranes are only haired near the body.

Biology and ecology

This species primarily feeds on flowers, nectar and fruit. When all three food items are available, flowers and nectar are preferred. [8] [11] [12] The pollen, nectar, and flower of coconut and durian trees, as well as the fruits of rambutan, fig and langsat trees, are consumed. Flying foxes will also eat mangoes and bananas. [12] [14] [15] With fruit, the flying fox prefers the pulp, and slices open the rind to get it. [15] With durian tree flowers, the flying fox can lick up the nectar without doing apparent damage to the flower. [4] The large flying fox is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Moniliformis convolutus . [16]

Behavior and life history

Colonies of large flying foxes fly in a scattered stream. [11] They may fly up to 50 km (31 mi) to their feeding grounds in one night. Vocalizations are not made during flight. [11] Large flocks fuse into family or feeding groups upon arrival at feeding grounds. [4] Flying foxes may circle a fruit tree before landing, and usually land on the tips of branches in an upright position, then fall into a head-down position from which they feed. [4] Feeding aggregations tend to be very noisy. [17]

Flowering trees form the basis of territories in this species. Territorial behavior includes growling and the spreading of wings. [17] During antagonistic behavior, individuals maintain spacing with wrists/thumbs sparring, bites, and loud vocalizations. [12] When moving to a suitable resting place after landing, an individual may fight with conspecifics along the way. [12] A roosting flying fox is positioned upside down with its wings wrapped up. [18] When it gets too warm, a flying fox fans itself with its wings. [12] Roosting bats are restless until midmorning.

Female large flying fox gestations are at their highest between November and January in Peninsular Malaysia, but some births occur in other months. [19] In Thailand, gestation may take place during the same period with young being born in March or early April. [11] [19] Females apparently give birth during April and May in the Philippines, [18] and usually give birth to only one young. [11] For the first days, the mothers carry their young, but leave them at the roost when they go on their foraging trips. [4] The young are weaned by two to three months. [11]

Range and habitat

The large flying fox ranges from Malay Peninsula, to the Philippines in the east and Indonesian Archipelago of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Timor in the south. [20] In certain areas, the bat prefers coastal regions, but it can also be found at elevations up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft). [21]

Flying foxes inhabit primary forest, mangrove forest, coconut groves, mixed fruit orchards, and a number of other habitats. [19] During the day, trees in mangrove forests and coconut groves may be used as roosts. [12] In Malaysia, flying foxes prefer lowland habitats below 365 m. [14] In Borneo, they inhabit the coastal areas, but move to nearby islands to feed on fruit. [8] Flying foxes roost in the thousands (maximum). One colony was recorded numbering around 2,000 individuals in a mangrove forest in Timor [12] and colonies of 10,000–⁠20,000 have also been reported. [4] In general, mangrove roosts have lower numbers of resting bats compared to lowland roost sites, which could mean mangrove forests are only used temporarily. [14]

Relationship to humans

The large flying fox is hunted for bushmeat. In Peninsular Malaysia, 1,756 hunting licenses were issued for the large flying fox from 2002–2006. In total, these hunting licenses permitted the hunting of 87,800 large flying foxes, or about 22,000 each year. Based on population modeling, the loss of the estimated 22,000 large flying foxes annually is unlikely to be sustainable. A 2009 study predicted extinction of the Peninsular Malaysian population within 6–81 years if 22,000 individuals are lost to hunting each year. [22]

The large flying fox is a natural reservoir of the Nipah virus. It is generally considered as the reservoir that led to the 1998 Malaysian outbreak, which was the first emergence of the disease in humans and pigs. [23] In a study of seventeen large flying foxes, Nipah virus was only isolated from one individual, which was at the time of capture. However, in maintaining the bats in quarantine for one year, researchers found that the bat was negative for antibodies against Nipah virus for the first eleven months, but was then seropositive once more. Two other bats—from which the Nipah virus was never detected—also registered as seropositive at points within the year. This suggested that the Nipah virus can recrudesce in the large flying fox, or maintain itself after periods of remission. The virus also recrudesces in humans, with humans becoming fatally ill with the disease up to four years after first exposure. [24]

Conservation

As of 2022, the large flying fox is evaluated as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It meets the criteria for this designation because it is likely experiencing significant population decline. The bushmeat trade is resulting in unsustainable harvest of this species. Additionally, it is experiencing habitat loss through deforestation. [1] The large flying fox is on Appendix II of CITES, which restricts international trade. [25]

One threat to the large flying fox is habitat destruction. [19] Flying foxes are sometimes hunted for food, and the controls on hunting seem to be unenforceable. [4] In some areas, farmers consider them pests as they sometimes feed on their orchards. [14] This species is also hunted for bushmeat in Indonesia, contributing to its decline. [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megabat</span> Family of fruit bats

Megabats constitute the family Pteropodidae of the order Chiroptera (bats). They are also called fruit bats, Old World fruit bats, or—especially the genera Acerodon and Pteropus—flying foxes. They are the only member of the superfamily Pteropodoidea, which is one of two superfamilies in the suborder Yinpterochiroptera. Internal divisions of Pteropodidae have varied since subfamilies were first proposed in 1917. From three subfamilies in the 1917 classification, six are now recognized, along with various tribes. As of 2018, 197 species of megabat had been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant golden-crowned flying fox</span> Large bat species

The giant golden-crowned flying fox, also known as the golden-capped fruit bat, is a species of megabat endemic to the Philippines. Since its description in 1831, three subspecies of the giant golden-crowned flying fox have been recognized, one of which is extinct. The extinct subspecies was formerly recognized as a full species, the Panay golden-crowned flying fox. Formerly, this species was placed in the genus Pteropus; while it is no longer within the genus, it has many physical similarities to Pteropus megabats. It is one of the largest bat species in the world, weighing up to 1.4 kg (3.1 lb)—only the Indian and great flying fox can weigh more. It has the longest documented forearm length of any bat species at 21 cm (8.3 in).

<i>Pteropus</i> Genus of large bats

Pteropus is a genus of megabats which are among the largest bats in the world. They are commonly known as fruit bats or flying foxes, among other colloquial names. They live in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, East Africa, and some oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are at least 60 extant species in the genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Little red flying fox</span> Species of bat

The little red flying-fox is a megachiropteran bat native to northern and eastern Australia. The species weighs about half a kilogram, one US pound, and is the smallest species of Pteropus in mainland Australia. P. scapulatus occurs at the coast and further inland, camping and flying to the tropical to temperate regions that provide them with an annual source of nectar. They exhibit an unusual method of obtaining drinking water during dry periods, skimming a stream's surface to gather it onto their fur while they are in flight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey-headed flying fox</span> Species of bat

The grey-headed flying fox is a megabat native to Australia. The species shares mainland Australia with three other members of the genus Pteropus: the little red P. scapulatus, spectacled P. conspicillatus, and the black P. alecto. The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spectacled flying fox</span> Species of bat

The spectacled flying fox, also known as the spectacled fruit bat, is a megabat that lives in Australia's north-eastern regions of Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea and on the offshore islands including Woodlark Island, Alcester Island, Kiriwina, and Halmahera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The black flying fox or black fruit bat is a bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is among the largest bats in the world, but is considerably smaller than the largest species in its genus, Pteropus. The black flying fox is native to Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. It is not a threatened species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livingstone's fruit bat</span> Species of bat

Livingstone's fruit bat, also called the Comoro flying fox, is a megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is an Old World fruit bat found only in the Anjouan and Mohéli islands in the Union of the Comoros in the western Indian Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-bellied fruit bat</span> Species of bat

The black-bellied fruit bat is a species of order bat in the family Pteropodidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The Indian flying fox, also known as the greater Indian fruit bat, is a species of flying fox native to the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the largest bats in the world. It is of interest as a disease vector, as it is capable of transmitting several viruses to humans. It is nocturnal and feeds mainly on ripe fruits, such as mangoes and bananas, and nectar. This species is often regarded as vermin due to its destructive tendencies towards fruit farms, but the benefits of its pollination and seed propagation often outweigh the impacts of its fruit consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gray flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The gray flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is not to be confused with the grey flying fox. It is found in Indonesia, but not in the Philippines, despite occasional reference to such. Very little is known about this species. The gray flying fox has small size and neutral coloration with a brownish head and an orange abdomen. It probably roosts individually or in small groups. It was listed on appendix II of CITES, and is classified as "Data Deficient" by the IUCN. This species has been decimated by hunting for bushmeat in Indonesia. The hunters use fishing hooks, ropes, and other supplies to hunt the bats. The ropes and hooks are placed along their flight paths, tearing and ensnaring the bats' wings when are flying. In the course of a hunting season, entire colonies can be killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small flying fox</span> Species of bat

The small flying fox, island flying fox or variable flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is found in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Maldives, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines the Solomon Islands, Thailand and Vietnam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyle's flying fox</span> Species of mammal

Lyle's flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is found in Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, with an outlying population in Yunnan, China. It faces persecution from farmers and it is killed for bushmeat in parts of its range. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being "vulnerable".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The great flying fox, also known as the greater flying fox or Bismarck flying fox, is a species of megabat in the genus Pteropus, found throughout lowland areas of New Guinea and in the Bismarck Archipelago. Conflicting evidence suggests that its closest relative is either the spectacled flying fox or, jointly, the Pelew and insular flying foxes. Two subspecies are recognized. At up to 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) in weight, it is among the heaviest bats in the world and the largest bat in Melanesia. It is a gregarious animal which roosts with hundreds or thousands of individuals. In part due to its wide variation in color, it has many taxonomic synonyms, including Pteropus degener, Pteropus papuanus, and Pteropus sepikensis. It may forage during the day or night in search of fruit, including figs or fruits from the family Sapotaceae. It is considered a least-concern species by the IUCN, though its numbers have been negatively impacted by what appeared to be a disease, as well as by hunting for bushmeat that occurs across its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bonin flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Bonin flying fox, Bonin fruit bat, or in Japanese Ogasawara giant bat is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to four islands in Ogasawara Islands, Japan. Its natural habitat is subtropical forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Little golden-mantled flying fox</span> Species of bat

The little golden-mantled flying fox is a species of bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is found in Indonesia and the Philippines. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madagascan flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Madagascan flying fox, Madagascar flying-fox, or Madagascar fruit bat is a species of megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitats are diverse, and include moist lowland forests, dry forests, succulent woodlands, and spiny thickets, and mangroves. It eats figs and other fruits, flowers, and leaves. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insular flying fox</span> Species of bat

The insular flying fox or Pacific flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is geographically widespread, the most widespread flying fox in the Pacific: it is found in American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pemba flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Pemba flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to the island of Pemba on the coast of Tanzania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horsfield's fruit bat</span> Species of bat

Horsfield's fruit bat is a species of megabat native to South East Asia. It is named for Thomas Horsfield, an American naturalist who presented the type specimen to the British Museum.

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