Lepiota

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Lepiota
Lepiota clypeolaria.JPG
Lepiota clypeolaria , the type species
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Agaricaceae
Genus: Lepiota
(Pers.) Gray (1821)
Type species
Lepiota clypeolaria
Synonyms

Lepiota is a genus of gilled mushrooms in the family Agaricaceae. All Lepiota species are ground-dwelling saprotrophs with a preference for rich, calcareous soils. Basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are agaricoid with whitish spores, typically with scaly caps and a ring on the stipe. Around 400 species of Lepiota are currently recognized worldwide. Many species are poisonous, some lethally so.

Contents

Taxonomy

History

Agaricus section Lepiota was originally published in 1797 by South African-born mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon. [1] It was subsequently raised to the rank of genus by Samuel Frederick Gray. As originally conceived, the genus was a mix of agarics with rings on their stems, including species now placed in Armillaria , Cortinarius , and Pholiota . [2] In 1822, however, the influential Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries restricted Lepiota to white-spored, ringed agarics. [3]

Based on macro- and micromorphology, later authors gradually refined the generic concept of Lepiota. Some unrelated genera, such as Cystoderma (Fayod 1889) and Limacella (Earle 1909), were removed from the genus whilst several related genera, including Leucocoprinus (Patouillard 1888), Macrolepiota and Leucoagaricus (Singer 1948), Cystolepiota (Singer 1952), and Echinoderma (Bon 1991) were separated off. These segregated genera, together with Lepiota itself, are still often grouped together as Lepiota s.l. ( sensu lato = "in the wide sense") or as the "lepiotoid" fungi. [4] [5] [6] [7]

The secotioid species Amogaster viridiglebus, described in 1996 and initially placed in the order Boletales, [8] was later determined to be a member of Lepiota, and officially transferred to the genus in 2013. [9]

Current status

Following some discussion over the type species, [10] Lepiota has now been conserved under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, typified by Agaricus colubrinus Pers. (= Lepiota clypeolaria ). [11] Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, suggests that the morphological concept of Lepiota s.s. (sensu stricto = in the strict or narrow sense) is soundly based. [5] [12] [13]

The name "Lepiota" is derived from the Greek λεπις (= "scale") + οὖς (= "ear"). [14]

Description

Fruit bodies of Lepiota species are almost all agaricoid ( Lepiota viridigleba is the sole sequestrate species in the genus [9] ), most (but not all) having comparatively small caps (less than 10 cm (4 in) in diameter) and slender stems. The cap cuticle (surface skin) typically splits as the cap expands, breaking up into concentric rings of scales towards the margin. The gills beneath the cap are white to cream (rarely yellow) and are free (not joined to the stem). The gills are covered by a partial veil when young, which typically ruptures to leave a cuff-like ring (sometimes ephemeral) often with additional scaly remains on the stem. Several species have a distinct, often rubbery, smell. The spore print is white to cream. The spores are usually (but not always) dextrinoid (turning red-brown in an iodine-based reagent). [4] [15]

Habitat and distribution

Most if not all Lepiota species are nitrophilic, with a preference for calcareous soils. They typically occur in rich humus in broadleaf or conifer woodland, in northern Europe often among nettles ( Urtica dioica ) or dog's mercury ( Mercurialis perennis ). A few species are more frequently found in calcareous grassland or in dunes. [15] The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, but with a preference for warm areas, meaning there are fewer species in colder climates. Around 400 species are currently recognized worldwide. [16]

Toxicity

Several species contain amatoxins and are lethally poisonous, if consumed. [17] Those known to have caused fatalities include Lepiota brunneoincarnata , [18] [19] L. brunneolilacea , [20] L. castanea , [21] L. helveola , [21] [22] and L. subincarnata (synonym L. josserandii). [23] No Lepiota species is recommended as edible. [15]

Literature

No comprehensive monograph of the genus has yet been published. In Europe, however, species of Lepiota were illustrated and described in a regional guide by Candusso & Lanzoni (1990) [4] and more briefly in descriptive keys by Bon (1993). [15] Dutch species were illustrated and described by Vellinga (2001). [24] No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America, but Vellinga (2008) has published an online bibliography of the relevant literature. [25] In Australia, a guide to the Lepiota species of south-eastern Queensland was published by Aberdeen (1992). [6] In Asia, a study of Lepiota diversity in northern Thailand revealed 73 species. [26]

List of species

The following species have individual entries:

The following species have individual entries, but are now placed in different genera:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agaricales</span> Order of mushrooms

The Agaricales are an order of fungi in the division Basidiomycota. As originally conceived, the order contained all the agarics, but subsequent research has shown that not all agarics are closely related and some belong in other orders, such as the Russulales and Boletales. Conversely, DNA research has also shown that many non-agarics, including some of the clavarioid fungi and gasteroid fungi belong within the Agaricales. The order has 46 extant families, more than 400 genera, and over 25,000 described species, along with six extinct genera known only from the fossil record. Species in the Agaricales range from the familiar Agaricus bisporus and the deadly Amanita virosa to the coral-like Clavaria zollingeri and bracket-like Fistulina hepatica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agaricaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Agaricaceae are a family of basidiomycete fungi and include the genus Agaricus, as well as basidiomycetes previously classified in the families Tulostomataceae, Lepiotaceae, and Lycoperdaceae.

<i>Echinoderma</i> Genus of fungi

Echinoderma is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Its members were for a long time considered to belong to genus Lepiota and the group was then circumscribed by French mycologist Marcel Bon in 1981 as a subgenus of Cystolepiota before he raised it to generic status in 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hygrophoraceae</span> Family of fungi

The Hygrophoraceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Originally conceived as containing white-spored, thick-gilled agarics, including Hygrophorus and Hygrocybe species, DNA evidence has extended the limits of the family, so it now contains not only agarics, but also basidiolichens and corticioid fungi. Species are thus diverse and are variously ectomycorrhizal, lichenized, associated with mosses, or saprotrophic. The family contains 34 genera and over 1000 species. None is of any great economic importance, though fruit bodies of some Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus species are considered edible and may be collected for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrophorus</i> Genus of fungi

Hygrophorus is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called "woodwaxes" in the UK or "waxy caps" in North America, basidiocarps are typically fleshy, often with slimy caps and lamellae that are broadly attached to decurrent. All species are ground-dwelling and ectomycorrhizal and are typically found in woodland. Around 100 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

<i>Hygrocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics in the family Hygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English, basidiocarps are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.

<i>Camarophyllopsis</i> Genus of fungi

Camarophyllopsis is a genus of agarics in the family Clavariaceae. Basidiocarps are dull-coloured and have dry caps, rather distant, decurrent lamellae, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe species are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands which are a declining habitat, making them of conservation concern.

<i>Entoloma</i> Genus of fungi

Entoloma is a genus of fungi in the order Agaricales. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps are typically agaricoid, though a minority are gasteroid. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. The genus is large, with almost 2000 species worldwide. Most species are saprotrophic, but some are ectomycorrhizal, and a few are parasitic on other fungi. The type, Entoloma sinuatum, is one of several Entoloma species that are poisonous, typically causing mild to severe gastrointestinal illness.

<i>Macrolepiota</i> Genus of fungi

Macrolepiota is a genus of white spored, gilled mushrooms of the family Agaricaceae. The best-known member is the parasol mushroom (M. procera). The widespread genus contains about 40 species.

<i>Lepiota brunneoincarnata</i> Species of fungus

Lepiota brunneoincarnata, the deadly dapperling, is a gilled mushroom of the genus Lepiota in the order Agaricales. Widely distributed in Europe and temperate regions of Asia as far east as China, it grows in grassy areas such as fields, parks and gardens, and is often mistaken for edible mushrooms. The mushroom has a brown scaled cap up to 4 cm wide with a pinkish brown stem and white gills. It is highly toxic, with several deaths having been recorded as it resembles the edible grey knight and fairy ring champignon.

<i>Melanoleuca</i> Genus of fungi

Melanoleuca is a poorly known genus of saprotrophic mushrooms traditionally classified in the family Tricholomataceae. Most are small to medium sized, white, brown, ocher or gray with a cylindrical to subcylindrical stipe and white to pale yellowish gills. The basidiospores are ellipsoid and ornamented with amyloid warts. Melanoleuca is considered a difficult group to study due to their macroscopic similarities among species and the need of a thorough microscopic analysis to separate species. DNA studies have determined that this genus is closely related to Amanita and Pluteus and that it does not belong to the family Tricholomataceae.

Endoptychum is a genus of secotioid fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Like the majority of secotioid taxa, the individual species of Endoptychum are thought to be recent mutations from agaricoid species, hence, Endoptychum is likely not a valid monophyletic genus.

<i>Leucoagaricus</i> Genus of fungi

Leucoagaricus is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi in the family Agaricaceae. As of March 2023 there are over 200 accepted species of Leucoagaricus with ongoing research into the genus adding several more each year. Leucocoprinus is a similar genus and considered by some sources to be indistinct from Leucoagaricus based on genetic data that demonstrates they are monophyletic. Species are separated into these genera based on macroscopic features such as cap striations in Leucocoprinus or the more persistent basidiocarps (mushrooms) of Leucoagaricus as well as microscopic features such as the lack of a germ pore in Leucoagaricus species. As a result of the similarities and disagreement on taxonomy, many of the species within these genera have formerly been classified in the other and may still be known by previous classifications. For instance the species Leucoagaricus gongylophorus is cultivated by fungus-growing ants but was formerly known as Leucocoprinus gongylophorus whilst other species cultivated by the lesser attine ants are still classified as undescribed Leucocoprinus species.

<i>Leucopholiota decorosa</i> Species of fungus

Leucopholiota decorosa is a species of fungus in the mushroom family Tricholomataceae. Commonly known as the decorated pholiota, it is distinguished by its fruit body which is covered with pointed brown, curved scales on the cap and stem, and by its white gills. Found in the eastern United States, France, and Pakistan, it is saprobic, growing on the decaying wood of hardwood trees. L. decorosa was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck as Agaricus decorosus in 1873, and the species has been transferred to several genera in its history, including Tricholoma, Tricholomopsis, Armillaria, and Floccularia. Three American mycologists considered the species unique enough to warrant its own genus, and transferred it into the new genus Leucopholiota in a 1996 publication. Lookalike species with similar colors and scaly fruit bodies include Pholiota squarrosoides, Phaeomarasmius erinaceellus, and Leucopholiota lignicola. L. decorosa is considered an edible mushroom.

<i>Lepiota subincarnata</i> Species of fungus

Lepiota subincarnata, commonly known as the fatal dapperling and deadly parasol, is a gilled mushroom of the genus Lepiota in the order Agaricales. It is known to contain amatoxins and consuming this fungus can be potentially lethal. The species is found in Asia, Europe, and North America, in woods as well as richly soiled parks. It was first described scientifically by the Danish mycologist Jakob Emanuel Lange in 1940. Bon and Boiffard described Lepiota josserandii in 1974, which turned out to be the same species.

Lepiota viridigleba is a species of sequestrate fungus in the family Agaricaceae. It was first described as new to science by mycologist Michael Castellano in 1995, based on collections made among Populus roots in California. The fungus was initially called Amogaster viridiglebus and tentatively placed in the order Boletales. Molecular analysis revealed the fungus to be a member of the genus Lepiota, and it was transferred to that genus in 2013.

<i>Lepiota castaneidisca</i> Species of fungus

Lepiota castaneidisca is a species of agaric fungus in the family Agaricaceae. Formally described in 1912, it was for a long time considered the same species as the similar Lepiota cristata until molecular analysis reported in 2001 demonstrated that it was genetically distinct. It is most common in coastal and northern California, and has also been recorded in Mexico. A saprobic species, it is usually found under redwood and Monterey cypress. Its fruit bodies (mushrooms) have white caps with an orange-red to orange-brown center that measure up to 3.2 cm (1.3 in) wide. The cream-colored to light pink stems are up to 6.5 cm (2.6 in) long by 0.2–0.6 cm (0.1–0.2 in) thick, and have a ring. L. castaneidisca can be distinguished from other similar Lepiota species by differences in habitat, macroscopic, or microscopic characteristics.

<i>Lepiota cristata</i> Species of fungus

Lepiota cristata, commonly known as the stinking dapperling, brown-eyed parasol, or the stinking parasol, is an agaric and possibly poisonous mushroom in the family Agaricaceae. A common and widespread species—one of the most widespread fungi in the genus Lepiota—it has been reported from Europe, northern Asia, North America, and New Zealand. It fruits on the ground in disturbed areas, such as lawns, path and road edges, parks, and gardens. The species produces fruit bodies characterized by the flat, reddish-brown concentric scales on the caps, and an unpleasant odour resembling burnt rubber. Similar Lepiota species can sometimes be distinguished from L. cristata by differences in cap colour, stipe structure, or odour, although some species can only be reliably distinguished through the use of microscopy.

References

  1. ↑ Persoon CH. (1797). Tentamen dispositionis methodicae Fungorum (in Latin). Leipzig, Germany: Wolf. p. 68.
  2. ↑ Gray SF. (1821). A natural arrangement of British plants. Vol. 1. London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy. p. 601. Retrieved 2011-08-05.
  3. ↑ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum. Vol. 1. Lund, Sweden: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 19. Retrieved 2011-08-05.
  4. 1 2 3 Candusso M, Lanzoni G (1990). Fungi Europaei 4: Lepiota s.l.. Alassio, Italy: Edizioni Candusso. p. 743.
  5. 1 2 Johnson J, Vilgalys R (1998). "Phylogenetic systematics of Lepiota sensu lato based on nuclear large subunit rDNA evidence". Mycologia. 90 (6): 971–979. doi:10.2307/3761269. JSTOR   3761269.
  6. 1 2 Aberdeen EC. (2001). Lepiotoid genera (Agaricales) in south-eastern Queensland. Gailes, Queensland: Aberdeen Publications. p. 34. ISBN   978-0-9596526-4-2.
  7. ↑ Bon M. (1991). "Les genres Echinoderma (Locq. ex Bon) st. nov. et Rugosomyces Raithelhuber ss lato". Documents Mycologiques (in French). 21 (82): 61–66.
  8. ↑ Castellano MA. (1995). "NATS truffle and truffle-like fungi 4: Amogaster viridigleba gen. et sp.nov., a new truffle-like fungus from the Sierra Nevada". Mycotaxon . 55: 185–8.
  9. 1 2 Ge Z-W, Smith ME (2013). "Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequences indicates that the sequestrate Amogaster viridiglebus is derived from within the agaricoid genus Lepiota (Agaricaceae)". Mycological Progress. 12 (1): 151–5. Bibcode:2013MycPr..12..151G. doi:10.1007/s11557-012-0841-y. S2CID   18543761.
  10. ↑ Donk MA. (1962). "The generic names proposed for Agaricaceae". Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia. 5: 1–320. ISSN   0078-2238.
  11. ↑ International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code, 2006), Appendix III "INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE online". Archived from the original on 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
  12. ↑ Vellinga EC. (2003). "Phylogeny of Lepiota (Agaricaceae) - Evidence from nrITS and nrLSU sequences". Mycological Progress. 2 (4): 305–322. Bibcode:2003MycPr...2..305V. doi:10.1007/s11557-006-0068-x. S2CID   13944947.
  13. ↑ Vellinga EC. (2004). "Genera in the family Agaricaceae – Evidence from nrITS and nrLSU sequences". Mycological Research. 108 (Pt 4): 354–377. doi:10.1017/S0953756204009700. PMID   15209277. S2CID   42847042.
  14. ↑ Rea C. (1922). British Basidiomycetaceae: a handbook of the larger British fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 799.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Bon M. (1993). Flore mycologique d'Europe 3: Les Lepiotes. Amiens Cedex: CRDP de Picardie. p. 153.
  16. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CABI. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  17. ↑ Benjamin DR. (1995). Mushrooms, poisons and panaceas: A handbook for naturalists, mycologists, and physicians. New York: W H Freeman & Co. p. 422. ISBN   978-0-7167-2649-4.
  18. ↑ Puig Hernández, A; Chumillas Córdoba, C; Camprodón Calveras, J; De Francisco Enciso, E; Furió Marco, MP; Ferrán Martínez, G (2002). "Intoxicación fatal por Lepiota bruneoincarnata". Anales de Medicina Interna. 18 (9): 481–2. doi: 10.4321/s0212-71992001000900007 . PMID   11715136.
  19. ↑ Ben Khelil M, et al. (2010). "Intoxication mortelle par Lepiota brunneoincarnata : à propos de 4 cas". Annales de Biologie Clinique. 68 (5): 561–567. doi:10.1684/abc.2010.0467. PMID   20870578.
  20. ↑ Boiffard J. (1987). "Une intoxication familiale par Lepiota brunneolilacea". Documents Mycologiques. 69: 21–23.
  21. 1 2 Paydas, S; et al. (1990). "Poisoning due to amatoxin-containing Lepiota species". British Journal of Clinical Practice. 44 (11): 450–453. PMID   2282295.
  22. ↑ Işiloğlu M, Watling R (1991). "Poisonings by Lepiota helveola Bres. in southern Turkey". Edinburgh Journal of Botany. 48: 91–100. doi:10.1017/S0960428600003668.
  23. ↑ Haines, JH; Lichstein, E; Glickerman, D. (1986). "A fatal poisoning from an amatoxin containing Lepiota". Mycopathologia. 93 (1): 15–7. doi:10.1007/BF00437009. PMID   3960099. S2CID   28756785.
  24. ↑ Vellinga EC. (2001). Genus Lepiota in Flora Agaricina Neerlandica 5. Lisse, Netherlands: AA Balkema. pp. 109–151. ISBN   978-90-5410-494-0.
  25. ↑ Vellinga EC. (2008). Bibliography of North American Lepiota species – v. 2.1 http://nature.berkeley.edu/brunslab/ev/americanlepiotaliterature_2.1.pdf
  26. ↑ Sysouphanthonga P, Hyde KD, Vellinga EC (2013). "Diversity of Lepiota (Agaricales) in northern Thailand". Mycology. 4 (1): 22–28. doi: 10.1080/21501203.2013.764358 . S2CID   82743099.
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