The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place between 1973 and 1982. The Convention was opened for signature on 10 December 1982 and entered into force on 16 November 1994 upon deposition of the 60th instrument of ratification. [1]
The Convention has been ratified by 170 parties, which includes 169 states (166 United Nations member states plus the UN Observer state Palestine and non-member states the Cook Islands and Niue) and the European Union. [2] An additional 14 UN member states have signed, but not ratified the Convention.
Subsequently, the "Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea" was signed in 1994, effectively amending the original Convention. The Agreement has been ratified by 152 parties (all of which are parties to the Convention), which includes 151 states (148 United Nations member states plus the UN Observer state Palestine, as well as the Cook Islands and Niue) and the European Union. [3] An additional three UN member states (Egypt, Sudan, USA) have signed, but not ratified the Agreement.
As per Article 4 of the Agreement, following adoption of the Agreement any state which ratifies the Convention also becomes a party to the Agreement. Additionally, only states which have previously established or establishes at the same time its consent to be bound by the Convention can become parties to the Agreement.
States with a dagger (†) are landlocked states.
State [2] [3] [4] | Convention | Agreement | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Signed | Deposited | Method | Signed | Deposited | Method | |
Albania | Jun 23, 2003 | Accession | Jun 23, 2003 | Accession | ||
Algeria | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 11, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 11, 1996 | Ratification |
Angola | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 5, 1990 | Ratification | Sep 7, 2010 | Accession | |
Antigua and Barbuda | Feb 7, 1983 | Feb 2, 1989 | Ratification | May 3, 2016 | Accession | |
Argentina | Oct 5, 1984 | Dec 1, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Dec 1, 1995 | Ratification |
Armenia † | Dec 9, 2002 | Accession | Dec 9, 2002 | Accession | ||
Australia | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 5, 1994 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Oct 5, 1994 | Ratification |
Austria † | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 14, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 14, 1995 | Ratification |
Azerbaijan † | Jun 16, 2016 | Accession | Jun 16, 2016 | Accession | ||
Bahamas | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 29, 1983 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Bahrain | Dec 10, 1982 | May 30, 1985 | Ratification | |||
Bangladesh | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 27, 2001 | Ratification | Jul 27, 2001 | Accession | |
Barbados | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 12, 1993 | Ratification | Nov 15, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Belarus † | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 30, 2006 | Ratification | Aug 30, 2006 | Accession | |
Belgium | Dec 5, 1984 | Nov 13, 1998 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Nov 13, 1998 | Ratification |
Belize | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 13, 1983 | Ratification | Oct 21, 1994 | Accession | |
Benin | Aug 30, 1983 | Oct 16, 1997 | Ratification | Oct 16, 1997 | Accession | |
Bolivia † | Nov 27, 1984 | Apr 28, 1995 | Ratification | Apr 28, 1995 | Accession | |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Jan 12, 1994 | Succession from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | May 26, 2021 | Accession | ||
Botswana † | Dec 5, 1984 | May 2, 1990 | Ratification | Jan 31, 2005 | Accession | |
Brazil | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 22, 1988 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Oct 25, 2007 | Ratification |
Brunei | Dec 5, 1984 | Nov 5, 1996 | Ratification | Nov 5, 1996 | Accession | |
Bulgaria | Dec 10, 1982 | May 15, 1996 | Ratification | May 15, 1996 | Accession | |
Burkina Faso | Dec 10, 1982 | Jan 25, 2005 | Ratification | Nov 30, 1994 | Jan 25, 2005 | Ratification |
Cabo Verde | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 10, 1987 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Apr 23, 2008 | Ratification |
Cameroon | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 19, 1985 | Ratification | May 24, 1995 | Aug 28, 2002 | Ratification |
Canada | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 7, 2003 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Nov 7, 2003 | Ratification |
Chad † | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 14, 2009 | Ratification | Aug 14, 2009 | Accession | |
Chile | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 25, 1997 | Ratification | Aug 25, 1997 | Accession | |
China | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 7, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 7, 1996 | Ratification |
Comoros | Dec 6, 1984 | Jun 21, 1994 | Ratification | |||
Democratic Republic of the Congo | Aug 22, 1983 | Feb 17, 1989 | Ratification | |||
Republic of the Congo | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 9, 2008 | Ratification | Jul 9, 2008 | Accession | |
Cook Islands | Dec 10, 1982 | Feb 15, 1995 | Ratification | Feb 15, 1995 | Accession | |
Costa Rica | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 21, 1992 | Ratification | Sep 20, 2001 | Accession | |
Côte d'Ivoire | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 26, 1984 | Ratification | Nov 25, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Croatia | Apr 5, 1995 | Succession from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Apr 5, 1995 | Accession | ||
Cuba | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 15, 1984 | Ratification | Oct 17, 2002 | Accession | |
Cyprus | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 12, 1988 | Ratification | Nov 1, 1994 | Jul 27, 1995 | Ratification |
Czech Republic † | Feb 22, 1993 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification Succession to the signature of Czechoslovakia † | Nov 16, 1994 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification |
Denmark | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 16, 2004 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Nov 16, 2004 | Ratification |
Djibouti | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 8, 1991 | Ratification | |||
Dominica | Mar 28, 1983 | Oct 24, 1991 | Ratification | |||
Dominican Republic | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 10, 2009 | Ratification | Jul 10, 2009 | Accession | |
Ecuador | Sep 24, 2012 | Accession | Sep 24, 2012 | Accession | ||
Egypt | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 26, 1983 | Ratification | Mar 22, 1995 | ||
Equatorial Guinea | Jan 30, 1984 | Jul 21, 1997 | Ratification | Jul 21, 1997 | Accession | |
Estonia | Aug 26, 2005 | Accession | Aug 26, 2005 | Accession | ||
Eswatini † | Jan 18, 1984 | Sep 24, 2012 | Ratification | Oct 12, 1994 | Sep 24, 2012 | Ratification |
European Union | Dec 7, 1984 | Apr 1, 1998 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Apr 1, 1998 | Ratification |
Fiji | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 10, 1982 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Finland | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification |
France | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 11, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Apr 11, 1996 | Ratification |
Gabon | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 11, 1998 | Ratification | Apr 4, 1995 | Mar 11, 1998 | Ratification |
Gambia | Dec 10, 1982 | May 22, 1984 | Ratification | |||
Georgia | Mar 21, 1996 | Accession | Mar 21, 1996 | Accession | ||
Germany | Oct 14, 1994 | Accession | Jul 29, 1994 | Oct 14, 1994 | Ratification | |
Ghana | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 7, 1983 | Ratification | Sep 23, 2016 | Accession | |
Greece | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 21, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 21, 1995 | Ratification |
Grenada | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 25, 1991 | Ratification | Nov 14, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Guatemala | Jul 8, 1983 | Feb 11, 1997 | Ratification | Feb 11, 1997 | Accession | |
Guinea | Oct 4, 1984 | Sep 6, 1985 | Ratification | Aug 26, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Guinea-Bissau | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 25, 1986 | Ratification | |||
Guyana | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 16, 1993 | Ratification | Sep 25, 2008 | Accession | |
Haiti | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 31, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 31, 1996 | Accession | |
Honduras | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 5, 1993 | Ratification | Jul 28, 2003 | Accession | |
Hungary † | Dec 10, 1982 | Feb 5, 2002 | Ratification | Feb 5, 2002 | Accession | |
Iceland | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 21, 1985 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
India | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 29, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 29, 1995 | Ratification |
Indonesia | Dec 10, 1982 | Feb 3, 1986 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 2, 2000 | Ratification |
Iraq | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 30, 1985 | Ratification | |||
Ireland | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 21, 1996 | Ratification |
Italy | Dec 7, 1984 | Jan 13, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jan 13, 1995 | Ratification |
Jamaica | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 21, 1983 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Japan | Feb 7, 1983 | Jun 20, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 20, 1996 | Ratification |
Jordan | Nov 27, 1995 | Accession | Nov 27, 1995 | Accession | ||
Kenya | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 2, 1989 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Accession | |
Kiribati | Feb 24, 2003 | Accession | Feb 24, 2003 | Accession | ||
South Korea | Mar 14, 1983 | Jan 29, 1996 | Ratification | Nov 7, 1994 | Jan 29, 1996 | Ratification |
Kuwait | Dec 10, 1982 | May 2, 1986 | Ratification | Aug 2, 2002 | Accession | |
Laos † | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 5, 1998 | Ratification | Oct 27, 1994 | Jun 5, 1998 | Ratification |
Latvia | Dec 23, 2004 | Accession | Dec 23, 2004 | Accession | ||
Lebanon | Dec 7, 1984 | Jan 5, 1995 | Ratification | Jan 5, 1995 | Accession | |
Lesotho † | Dec 10, 1982 | May 31, 2007 | Ratification | May 31, 2007 | Accession | |
Liberia | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 25, 2008 | Ratification | Sep 25, 2008 | Accession | |
Lithuania | Nov 12, 2003 | Accession | Nov 12, 2003 | Accession | ||
Luxembourg † | Dec 5, 1984 | Oct 5, 2000 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Oct 5, 2000 | Ratification |
Madagascar | Feb 25, 1983 | Aug 22, 2001 | Ratification | Aug 22, 2001 | Accession | |
Malawi † | Dec 7, 1984 | Sep 28, 2010 | Ratification | Sep 28, 2010 | Accession | |
Malaysia | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 14, 1996 | Ratification | Aug 2, 1994 | Oct 14, 1996 | Ratification |
Maldives | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 7, 2000 | Ratification | Oct 10, 1994 | Sep 7, 2000 | Ratification |
Mali † | Oct 19, 1983 | Jul 16, 1985 | Ratification | |||
Malta | Dec 10, 1982 | May 20, 1993 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 26, 1996 | Ratification |
Marshall Islands | Aug 9, 1991 | Accession | ||||
Mauritania | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 17, 1996 | Ratification | Aug 2, 1994 | Jul 17, 1996 | Ratification |
Mauritius | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 4, 1994 | Ratification | Nov 4, 1994 | Accession | |
Mexico | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 18, 1983 | Ratification | Apr 10, 2003 | Accession | |
Micronesia | Apr 29, 1991 | Accession | Aug 10, 1994 | Sep 6, 1995 | Ratification | |
Moldova † | Feb 6, 2007 | Accession | Feb 6, 2007 | Accession | ||
Monaco | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 20, 1996 | Ratification | Nov 30, 1994 | Mar 20, 1996 | Ratification |
Mongolia † | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 13, 1996 | Ratification | Aug 17, 1994 | Aug 13, 1996 | Ratification |
Montenegro | Oct 23, 2006 | Succession from Serbia and Montenegro | Oct 23, 2006 | Succession from Serbia and Montenegro | ||
Morocco | Dec 10, 1982 | May 31, 2007 | Ratification | Oct 19, 1994 | May 31, 2007 | Ratification |
Mozambique | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 13, 1997 | Ratification | Mar 13, 1997 | Accession | |
Myanmar | Dec 10, 1982 | May 21, 1996 | Ratification | May 21, 1996 | Accession | |
Namibia | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 18, 1983 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Nauru | Dec 10, 1982 | Jan 23, 1996 | Ratification | Jan 23, 1996 | Accession | |
Nepal † | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 2, 1998 | Ratification | Nov 2, 1998 | Accession | |
Netherlands | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 28, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 28, 1996 | Ratification |
New Zealand | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 19, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 19, 1996 | Ratification |
Nicaragua | Dec 9, 1984 | May 3, 2000 | Ratification | May 3, 2000 | Accession | |
Niger † | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 7, 2013 | Ratification | Aug 7, 2013 | Accession | |
Nigeria | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 14, 1986 | Ratification | Oct 25, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Niue | Dec 5, 1984 | Oct 11, 2006 | Ratification | Oct 11, 2006 | Accession | |
North Macedonia † | Aug 19, 1994 | Succession from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Aug 19, 1994 | Accession | ||
Norway | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 24, 1996 | Ratification | Jun 24, 1996 | Accession | |
Oman | Jul 1, 1983 | Aug 17, 1989 | Ratification | Feb 26, 1997 | Accession | |
Pakistan | Dec 10, 1982 | Feb 26, 1997 | Ratification | Aug 10, 1994 | Feb 26, 1997 | Ratification |
Palau | Sep 30, 1996 | Accession | Sep 30, 1996 | Accession | ||
Palestine | Jan 2, 2015 | Accession | Jan 2, 2015 | Accession | ||
Panama | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 1, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 1, 1996 | Accession | |
Papua New Guinea | Dec 10, 1982 | Jan 14, 1997 | Ratification | Jan 14, 1997 | Accession | |
Paraguay † | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 26, 1986 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 10, 1995 | Ratification |
Philippines | Dec 10, 1982 | May 8, 1984 | Ratification | Nov 15, 1994 | Jul 23, 1997 | Ratification |
Poland | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 13, 1998 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Nov 13, 1998 | Ratification |
Portugal | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 3, 1997 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Nov 3, 1997 | Ratification |
Qatar | Nov 27, 1984 | Dec 9, 2002 | Ratification | Dec 9, 2002 | Accession | |
Romania | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 17, 1996 | Ratification | Dec 17, 1996 | Accession | |
Russia | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 12, 1997 | Ratification | Mar 12, 1997 | Accession | |
Rwanda † | Dec 10, 1982 | May 18, 2023 | Ratification | May 18, 2023 | Accession | |
Samoa | Sep 28, 1984 | Aug 14, 1995 | Ratification | Jul 7, 1995 | Aug 14, 1995 | Ratification |
San Marino † | Jul 19, 2024 | Accession | ||||
Sao Tome and Principe | Jul 13, 1983 | Nov 3, 1987 | Ratification | |||
Saudi Arabia | Dec 7, 1984 | Apr 24, 1996 | Ratification | Apr 24, 1996 | Accession | |
Senegal | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 25, 1984 | Ratification | Aug 9, 1994 | Jul 25, 1995 | Ratification |
Serbia † | Mar 12, 2001 | Succession as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | May 12, 1995 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification | |
Seychelles | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 16, 1991 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Dec 15, 1994 | Ratification |
Sierra Leone | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 12, 1994 | Ratification | Dec 12, 1994 | Accession | |
Singapore | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 17, 1994 | Ratification | Nov 17, 1994 | Accession | |
Slovakia † | May 28, 1993 | May 8, 1996 | Ratification Succession to the signature of Czechoslovakia † | Nov 14, 1994 | May 8, 1996 | Ratification |
Slovenia | Jun 16, 1995 | Succession from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Jan 19, 1995 | Jun 16, 1995 | Ratification | |
Solomon Islands | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 23, 1997 | Ratification | Jun 23, 1997 | Accession | |
Somalia | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 24, 1989 | Ratification | |||
South Africa | Dec 5, 1984 | Dec 23, 1997 | Ratification | Oct 3, 1994 | Dec 23, 1997 | Ratification |
Spain | Dec 4, 1984 | Jan 15, 1997 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jan 15, 1997 | Ratification |
Sri Lanka | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 19, 1994 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
St. Kitts and Nevis | Dec 7, 1984 | Jan 7, 1993 | Ratification | |||
St. Lucia | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 27, 1985 | Ratification | |||
St. Vincent and the Grenadines | Dec 10, 1982 | Oct 1, 1993 | Ratification | |||
Sudan | Dec 10, 1982 | Jan 23, 1985 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | ||
Suriname | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 9, 1998 | Ratification | Jul 9, 1998 | Accession | |
Sweden | Dec 10, 1982 | Jun 25, 1996 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Jun 25, 1996 | Ratification |
Switzerland † | Oct 17, 1984 | May 1, 2009 | Ratification | Oct 26, 1994 | May 1, 2009 | Ratification |
Tanzania | Dec 10, 1982 | Sep 30, 1985 | Ratification | Oct 7, 1994 | Jun 25, 1998 | Ratification |
Thailand | Dec 10, 1982 | May 15, 2011 | Ratification | May 15, 2011 | Accession | |
Timor-Leste | Jan 8, 2013 | Accession | Jan 8, 2013 | Accession | ||
Togo | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 16, 1985 | Ratification | Aug 3, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Tonga | Aug 2, 1995 | Accession | Aug 2, 1995 | Accession | ||
Trinidad and Tobago | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 25, 1986 | Ratification | Oct 10, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Tunisia | Dec 10, 1982 | Apr 24, 1985 | Ratification | May 15, 1995 | May 24, 2002 | Ratification |
Tuvalu | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 9, 2002 | Ratification | Dec 9, 2002 | Accession | |
Uganda † | Dec 10, 1982 | Nov 9, 1990 | Ratification | Aug 9, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Ukraine | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 26, 1999 | Ratification | Feb 28, 1995 | Jul 26, 1999 | Ratification |
United Kingdom | Jul 25, 1997 | Accession | Jul 29, 1994 | Jul 25, 1997 | Ratification | |
Uruguay | Dec 10, 1982 | Dec 10, 1992 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Aug 7, 2007 | Ratification |
Vanuatu | Dec 10, 1982 | Aug 10, 1999 | Ratification | Jul 29, 1994 | Aug 10, 1999 | Ratification |
Vietnam | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 25, 1994 | Ratification | Apr 27, 2006 | Accession | |
Yemen | Dec 10, 1982 | Jul 21, 1987 | Ratification as the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. Also signed by the Yemen Arab Republic on Dec. 10 1982 prior to Yemeni unification. [2] | Oct 13, 2014 | Accession | |
Zambia † | Dec 10, 1982 | Mar 7, 1983 | Ratification | Oct 13, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
Zimbabwe † | Dec 10, 1982 | Feb 24, 1993 | Ratification | Oct 28, 1994 | Jul 28, 1995 | Ratification |
An additional 13 UN member states have signed the Convention but have not ratified it. One UN member state has signed the Agreement but has not ratified it. Therefore, none of these States are currently parties to either the Convention or the Agreement.
State [2] [3] [4] | Signed Convention | Signed Agreement |
---|---|---|
Afghanistan † | Mar 18, 1983 | |
Bhutan † | Dec 10, 1982 | |
Burundi † | Dec 10, 1982 | |
Cambodia | Jul 1, 1983 | |
Central African Republic † | Dec 4, 1984 | |
Colombia | Dec 10, 1982 | |
El Salvador | Dec 5, 1984 | |
Ethiopia † | Dec 10, 1982 | |
Iran | Dec 10, 1982 | |
North Korea | Dec 10, 1982 | |
Libya | Dec 3, 1984 | |
Liechtenstein † | Nov 30, 1984 | |
United Arab Emirates | Dec 10, 1982 | |
United States | Jul 29, 1994 |
There are 14 United Nations member and observer states which have neither signed nor acceded either the Convention or the Agreement:
Although the United States helped shape the Convention and its subsequent revisions, [5] and though it signed the 1994 Agreement, it has not signed the Convention as it objected - among other things - to Part XI of the Convention. [6] [7]
In 1983 President Ronald Reagan, through Proclamation No. 5030, claimed a 200-mile exclusive economic zone. In December 1988 President Reagan, through Proclamation No. 5928, extended U.S. territorial waters from three nautical miles to twelve nautical miles for national security purposes. However a legal opinion from the Justice Department questioned the President's constitutional authority to extend sovereignty as Congress has the power to make laws concerning the territory belonging to the United States under the U.S. Constitution. In any event, Congress needs to make laws defining if the extended waters, including oil and mineral rights, are under state or federal control. [8] [9]
On 16 July 2012, the U.S. Senate had 34 Republican Senators who indicated their intention to vote against ratification of the Convention if it came to a vote. Since at least two-thirds of the 100 member Senate (at least 67 Senators) are required to ratify a treaty, consideration of the Convention was deferred again. [10]
Some American commentators, including former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, have warned that ratification of the Convention might create a precedent with regard to resources of outer space. [11]
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is a Kingston, Jamaica-based intergovernmental body of 167 member states and the European Union established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control development of mineral related operations in the international seabed considered the "common heritage of all mankind" and also protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is to safeguard the international deep sea, the waters below 200 meters or 656 feet, where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light. Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA is to exercise oversight of activities that might threaten biological diversity and harm the marine environment. The Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council and Secretariat.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international treaty that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. As of July 2024, 169 States and the European Union are parties.
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) is an international agreement that regulates treaties among sovereign states.
The terms international waters or transboundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands.
Territorial waters are informally an area of water where a sovereign state has jurisdiction, including internal waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone, and potentially the extended continental shelf. In a narrower sense, the term is often used as a synonym for the territorial sea.
Law of the sea is a body of international law governing the rights and duties of states in maritime environments. It concerns matters such as navigational rights, sea mineral claims, and coastal waters jurisdiction.
An exclusive economic zone (EEZ), as prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is an area of the sea in which a sovereign state has exclusive rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind.
Freedom of navigation (FON) is a principle of law of the sea that ships flying the flag of any sovereign state shall not suffer interference from other states, apart from the exceptions provided for in international law. In the realm of international law, it has been defined as “freedom of movement for vessels, freedom to enter ports and to make use of plant and docks, to load and unload goods and to transport goods and passengers". This right is now also codified as Article 87(1)a of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is a treaty that was adopted on 2 November 2001 by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The convention is intended to protect "all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character" which have been under water for over 100 years. This extends to the protection of shipwrecks, sunken cities, prehistoric art work, treasures that may be looted, sacrificial and burial sites, and old ports that cover the oceans' floors. The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is significant as it allows for the retelling of numerous historical events. As part of its duty to conduct scientific research and provide continuous education on the importance of underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO strives to maintain these sites for the enjoyment of current and future generations. The convention may provide a customary framework to help raise awareness and seek to combat the illegal looting and pirating occurring in waters worldwide. As an international body, member states of the convention agree to work towards the preservation of sunken cultural property within their jurisdiction and the high seas.
The Arctic consists of land, internal waters, territorial seas, exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and international waters above the Arctic Circle. All land, internal waters, territorial seas and EEZs in the Arctic are under the jurisdiction of one of the eight Arctic coastal states: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States. International law regulates this area as with other portions of Earth.
Maritime Security Regimes are codes and conventions of behavior agreed upon by coastal states to provide a degree of security within territorial waters and on the high seas.
The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, usually known as the Berne Convention, was an international assembly held in 1886 in the Swiss city of Berne by ten European countries with the goal of agreeing on a set of legal principles for the protection of original work. They drafted and adopted a multi-party contract containing agreements for a uniform, border-crossing system that became known under the same name. Its rules have been updated many times since then. The treaty provides authors, musicians, poets, painters, and other creators with the means to control how their works are used, by whom, and on what terms. In some jurisdictions these type of rights are referred to as copyright; on the European continent they are generally referred to as authors' rights or makerright.
The Convention on the Continental Shelf was an international treaty created to codify the rules of international law relating to continental shelves. The treaty, after entering into force 10 June 1964, established the rights of a sovereign state over the continental shelf surrounding it, if there be any. The treaty was one of three agreed upon at the first United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. It has since been superseded by a new agreement reached in 1982 at UNCLOS III.
The United States was among the nations that participated in the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, which took place from 1974 through 1982 and resulted in the international treaty known as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The United States also participated in the subsequent negotiations of modifications to the treaty from 1990 to 1994. The UNCLOS came into force in 1994. Although the United States now recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of customary international law, it has not ratified it.
Transit passage is a concept of the law of the sea, which allows a vessel or aircraft the freedom of navigation or overflight solely for the purpose of continuous and expeditious transit of a strait between one part of the high seas or exclusive economic zone and another. The requirement of continuous and expeditious transit does not preclude passage through the strait for the purpose of entering, leaving or returning from a state bordering the strait, subject to the conditions of entry to that state. The transit passage may be exercised regardless of the nationality (flag) of the ship, its form of ownership, the merchant or government status of a ship or warship, the private or government status of an aircraft.
Arctic cooperation and politics are partially coordinated via the Arctic Council, composed of the eight Arctic states: the United States, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, and Denmark with Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The dominant governmental power in Arctic policy resides within the executive offices, legislative bodies, and implementing agencies of the eight Arctic countries, and to a lesser extent other countries, such as United Kingdom, Germany, European Union and China. NGOs and academia play a large part in Arctic policy. Also important are intergovernmental bodies such as the United Nations and NATO.
The Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) is an intergovernmental agency established in 1979 to facilitate regional co-operation and co-ordination on fisheries policies between its member states in order to achieve conservation and optimum utilisation of living marine resources, in particular highly migratory fish stocks, for the benefit of the peoples of the region, in particular the developing countries. The office campus is located in Honiara, Solomon Islands
The United Nations agreement on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction or BBNJ Agreement, also referred to by some stakeholders as the High Seas Treaty or Global Ocean Treaty, is a legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. There is some controversy over the popularized name of the agreement. It is an agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The text was finalised during an intergovernmental conference at the UN on 4 March 2023 and adopted on 19 June 2023. Both states and regional economic integration organizations can become parties to the treaty.