List of white defendants executed for killing a black victim

Last updated

Executions of white defendants for killing black victims are rare. [1] Since the reinstatement of capital punishment in the United States in 1976, just 21 white people have been executed for killing a black person (less than 1.36 percent of all executions), whereas the number of black people executed for killing a white person is 299 (making up nearly 19.4 percent of all executions). [2] [3] Of the 21 executed, seven were put to death for racially motivated murders. Additionally, a further 13 white people have been executed for killing a black person, four in racially motivated cases, and another person, or people, of a different race. [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Prior to the 1976 re-instatement of capital punishment in the United States, the last execution of a white person for the killing of a black person was on April 15, 1944, when Fred L. Brady, a 46-year-old white man with a long criminal record, was executed for murdering Joe Williams, a black man, during an attempted robbery in Kansas. [1]

List of white defendants executed for killing a black victim in the United States since 1976

  Indicates cases where the executed defendant killed multiple people of different races

No.Date of executionExecuted personAgeStateMethodVictim(s)Ref.
1September 6, 1991 Donald Henry Gaskins 58 South Carolina Electrocution Rudolph Tyner (1 Black male) [a] [4] [1]
2January 24, 1995 Kermit Smith Jr. 37 North Carolina Lethal injection Whelette Collins (1 Black female) [4] [5]
3March 20, 1995 Thomas Joseph Grasso 32 Oklahoma Hilda Johnson (1 Black female) [b] [4] [6]
4July 1, 1995 Roger Dale Stafford 43 Oklahoma Lethal injection Isaac Freeman, Louis Zacarias, Terri Horst, Linda Lorenz, David Lindsey, Melvin Lorenz, Richard Lorenz, David Salsman, and Anthony Tew (1 Black male, 1 Hispanic male, 2 White females, 5 White males) [c] [4] [7] [8]
5December 6, 1995 Robert Earl O'Neal Jr. 34 Missouri Lethal injection Arthur Dade (1 Black male) [d] [4] [9]
6June 6, 1997 Henry Francis Hays 42 Alabama Electrocution Michael Donald (1 Black male) [e] [4] [10]
7December 11, 1997Thomas Howard Beavers Jr.26 Virginia Lethal injection Marguerite Lowery (1 Black female) [4] [11] [12]
8March 6, 1998 John David Arnold Jr. 43 South Carolina Betty Gardner (1 Black female) [f] [4] [13]
9July 10, 1998 John Herman Plath [4] [14]
10September 25, 1998Sammy Roberts40 South Carolina Lethal injection Louis Cakley, Kenneth Krause, and Bill Spain (1 Black male, 2 White males) [g] [4] [15] [16]
11April 28, 1999Eric Christopher Payne26 Virginia Ruth Parham and Sally Fazio (1 Black female, 1 White female) [h] [4] [11]
12July 6, 1999 Gary Michael Heidnik 55 Pennsylvania Lethal injection Deborah Dudley and Sandra Lindsay (2 Black females) [4] [17]
13July 8, 1999 Norman Lee Newsted 45 Oklahoma Larry Donnell Buckley (1 Black male) [i] [4] [18]
14July 21, 1999 Tommy David Strickler 33 Virginia Leann Whitlock (1 Black female) [j] [4] [11] [12]
15May 3, 2002 Richard Charles Johnson 39 South Carolina Bruce Kenneth Smalls (1 Black male) [k] [4] [19]
16September 10, 2003 Larry Allen Hayes 54 Texas Lethal injection Rosalyn Ann Robinson and Mary Evelyn Hayes (1 Black female, 1 White female) [l] [4] [20] [21] [22]
17July 14, 2006 William Ernest Downs Jr. 39 South Carolina Lethal injection Keenan O'Mailia (1 Black male) [m] [4] [23]
18July 20, 2006 Brandon Wayne Hedrick 27 Virginia Electrocution Lisa Yvonne Crider (1 Black female) [n] [4] [11] [24]
19November 9, 2006John Yancey Schmitt33 Lethal injection Earl Shelton Dunning (1 Black male) [4] [11] [25]
20September 12, 2007 Daryl Keith Holton 45 Tennessee Electrocution Kayla Holton, Brent Holton, Eric Holton, and Stephen Holton (1 Black female, 3 White males) [o] [4] [26]
21June 6, 2008 David Mark Hill 48 South Carolina Lethal injection Josie Curry, Michael Gregory, and James Riddle (1 Black female, 2 White males) [p] [4] [27] [28]
22February 17, 2011 Frank G. Spisak Jr. 59 Ohio Rev. Horace T. Rickerson, Brian Warford, and Timothy Sheehan (2 Black males, 1 White male) [q] [4] [29]
23June 16, 2011Lee Andrew Taylor32 Texas Lethal injection Donta Green (1 Black male) [r] [4] [30] [31] [22]
24September 21, 2011 Lawrence Russell Brewer 44 James Byrd Jr. (1 Black male) [s] [4] [32] [33]
25February 8, 2012Edwin Hart Turner38 Mississippi Eddie Brooks and Everett Curry (2 Black males) [t] [4] [34]
26September 25, 2012Cleve Foster48 Texas Nyanuer Gatluak "Mary" Pal (1 Black female) [u] [4] [35]
27January 16, 2013 Robert Charles Gleason Jr. 42 Virginia Electrocution Aaron Alexander Cooper and Harvey Gray Watson Jr. (1 Black male, 1 White male) [v] [4] [11] [36]
28March 6, 2013Frederick Treesh48 Ohio Lethal injection Henry Dupree (1 Black male) [w] [4] [37]
29September 25, 2013 Harry Mitts Jr. 61 Ohio Lethal injection John A. Bryant and Dennis Glivar (1 Black male, 1 White male) [x] [4] [38]
30January 11, 2017 Christopher Chubasco Wilkins 48 Texas Willie Ladell Freeman and Mike Silva (1 Black male, 1 Hispanic male) [4] [39]
31July 6, 2017 William Charles Morva 35 Virginia Derrick McFarland and Eric Sutphin (1 Black male, 1 White male) [y] [4] [11]
32August 24, 2017 Mark James Asay 53 Florida Robert Lee Booker and Robert McDowell (1 Black male, 1 Mixed-race male) [z] [4] [40]
33April 24, 2019 John William King 44 Texas Lethal injection James Byrd Jr. (1 Black male) [aa] [4] [41]
34October 14, 2025 Samuel Lee Smithers 72 Florida Lethal injection Denise Roach and Cristy Cowan (1 Black female, 1 White female) [4] [42]

Demographics

Sex
Male34
Female0
Date of execution
1976–19790
1980–19890
1990–199914
2000–20097
2010–201912
2020–20291
Age
20–293
30–3910
40–4914
50–595
60–691
70–791
State
South Carolina 7
Virginia 7
Texas 6
Ohio 3
Oklahoma 3
Florida 2
Alabama 1
Mississippi 1
Missouri 1
North Carolina 1
Pennsylvania 1
Tennessee 1
Method
Lethal injection 29
Electrocution 5
Total34100%

List of white defendants executed for crimes against black victims in the United States (pre-1972)

At least 41 white people were executed in the United States for crimes against black people before 1972. 39 of the 41 were executed for murder. In addition, one white person was executed for the attempted murder of two black people. Another white person was executed for "engaging in the slave trade", which was declared an act of piracy and thus a capital offense under the Piracy Law of 1820 when the defendant was an American citizen.

No.Date of deathInmateMethodAgeStateCrimeVictim(s)Ref.
1November 23, 1739John Cobidge Hanging Unknown Virginia MurderUnknown (1 Black female) [ab]
2Charles QuinUnknownMurderUnknown (1 Black male) [ac]
3David WhiteUnknown
4July 1752Pierre Antoine Dochenet24 Louisiana Attempted murderUnknown (2 Black females) [ad]
5May 12, 1775 William Pitman 40s/50s Virginia MurderUnknown (1 Black male) [ae]
6June 6, 1816Miner BabcockUnknown Connecticut MurderLondon (1 Black male) [af]
7November 10, 1820Mason Scott19 North Carolina MurderCaleb (1 Black male) [ag]
8July 27, 1821Isaac JonesUnknown Mississippi MurderUnknown (1 Black male) [ah] [43]
9April 25, 1822 Samuel Green 25/26 Massachusetts MurderBilly Williams (1 Black male) [ai]
10May 28, 1829George ChapmanUnknown New York MurderDaniel Wright (1 Black male) [44]
11May 15, 1840John Hoover58 North Carolina MurderMira (1 Black female) [aj]
12July 2, 1852Jean AdamUnknown Louisiana MurderMary (1 Black female) [ak] [45]
13Anthony DelisleUnknown
14January 14, 1853L. A. J. StubbsUnknown South Carolina MurderUnknown (1 Black male) [al] [46]
15March 3, 1854William BlackledgeUnknownMurderJoe (1 Black male) [am] [47]
16Thomas MotleyUnknown
17June 2, 1854James WilsonUnknown Texas MurderBill (1 Black male) [an] [48]
18February 21, 1862 Nathaniel Gordon 36 Federal government Piracy [ao] Unknown (at least 29 Black males and females) [ap] [49]
19January 16, 1874Joseph Baker35 North Carolina MurderNewton Wilfong (1 Black male) [aq] [50]
20June 19, 1876William Foster26 Missouri MurderUnknown (1 Black male) [51]
21December 7, 1877Harvey Thorpe New York MurderHoward (1 Black male) [ar] [52]
22March 15, 1878Augustus J. Johnson24 Georgia MurderDaniel Alford (1 Black male) [as]
23May 14, 1880Thomas White28 South Carolina MurderPete Hawkins (1 Black male) [53]
24December 17, 1880Daniel Keith42 North Carolina MurderAlice Ellis (1 Black female) [at] [54]
25February 25, 1881John Vonderheide24 Kentucky MurderRebecca Johnson (1 Black female) [au] [55]
26June 19, 1885William Morrow34 Tennessee MurderDick Overton (1 Black male) [av] [56] [57]
27March 19, 1890Mel J. Cheatham40 Mississippi MurderJim Tilghman (1 Black male) [58]
28January 23, 1899George W. Hite65 Virginia MurderWilliam Bowers (1 Black male) [aw] [59]
29June 21, 1910Antonio Fornaro Electrocution 31 New York MurderAgnes Johnson (1 Black female) [60]
30November 27, 1911A.J. O'Berry Hanging 26 Georgia MurderMary Randolph and her daughter (2 Black females) [ax] [61]
31July 26, 1912John Bailey22 Tennessee MurderBen Pettigrew, Fred Pettigrew, and Pearl Pettigrew (2 Black males and 1 Black female) [ay] [62]
32George Shelton19
33March 21, 1913Arthur Jones28 Alabama MurderJohn Holland (1 Black male) [az] [63]
34William Watson28
35December 7, 1923John Karayians Electrocution 34 Ohio MurderDavid Gamble (1 Black male) [ba] [64]
36March 20, 1936Erline Whitehead35 Kentucky MurderJohn Allen (1 Black male) [65]
37February 18, 1938Milford Exum Gas chamber 39 North Carolina MurderJames Williams (1 Black male) [bb] [66] [67]
38April 25, 1938Edward Rose Electrocution 22 Pennsylvania MurderFloyd Tranon (1 Black male) [bc] [68] [69]
39Theodore Duminiak20
40John Oreszak20
41April 15, 1944Fred L. Brady Hanging 46 Kansas Joe Williams (1 Black male) [70]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The murder occurred in prison. The defendant was a serial killer already serving multiple life sentences for the murders of nine other victims. Codefendant Tony Cimo, a White male, was allowed to plead guilty to lesser charges and served two years and nine months of an 8-year sentence. The deal was offered since Cimo had no criminal history and the victim, Rudolph Tyner, was on death row for murdering Cimo's parents.
  2. ↑ The defendant, who asked for a death sentence and waived his appeals, was also convicted of the murder of a White male in New York.
  3. ↑ Codefendant Verna Stafford, a White female, received a life sentence.
  4. ↑ The murder occurred in prison and was racially motivated. The defendant was already serving a life sentence for the murder of a White male and was a member of the Aryan Brotherhood. Codefendants Lloyd Schlup and Rodnie Stewart, both of whom were fellow Aryan Brotherhood members, were also convicted in the murder. Stewart was sentenced to life in prison and Schlup was sentenced to death. Schlup, whose guilt was questioned, won an appeal and received a life sentence after pleading guilty to a lesser charge.
  5. ↑ The murder was racially motivated. The defendant was a member of the Ku Klux Klan. The jury voted in favor of life imprisonment, but the judge overruled the verdict and sentenced the defendant to death. Codefendant James Knowles, a 17-year-old White male, received a life sentence after pleading guilty and agreeing to testify against the defendant. He was paroled in 2006.
  6. ↑ The murder was racially motivated.
  7. ↑ Codefendant Henry Copeland, a White male, was also sentenced to death, but died on death row in 1986.
  8. ↑ The defendant waived his appeals.
  9. ↑ The defendant was also convicted of the murders of 3 White victims in Utah which was a key reason for his death sentence.
  10. ↑ Codefendant Ronald Henderson, a White male, received a life sentence.
  11. ↑ The Black victim was a police officer. The defendant was also convicted of the murder of a White male and sentenced to life.
  12. ↑ The defendant waived his appeals.
  13. ↑ The Black victim was a minor. The defendant, who requested a death sentence and waived his appeals, was also convicted and sentenced to life in prison for the murder of a White victim (another minor) in Georgia.
  14. ↑ Codefendant Trevor Jones, a White male, received a life sentence.
  15. ↑ The defendant waived his appeals.
  16. ↑ Racial animus was a factor in the murder of the Black victim.
  17. ↑ The defendant was a member of the American Nazi Party and the murders were racially motivated.
  18. ↑ The murder occurred in prison and racial animus was a factor. The defendant was already serving a life sentence for his role in the murder of a White male and was a member of the Aryan Brotherhood. Codefendant Daniel Richbourg, a White male, was convicted of murder and sentenced to 48 years in prison.
  19. ↑ The murder was racially motivated. The defendant was a Neo-Nazi and the leader of a white supremacist prison gang. Codefendant John King, also a Neo-Nazi and a member of a white supremacist prison gang, was sentenced to death and executed as well. A third defendant, Shawn Berry, whose motive is disputed, received a life sentence after the prosecution conceded that he was not a white supremacist.
  20. ↑ Codefendant Paul Stewart, a 17-year-old White male, received a life sentence. Stewart later had his sentence reduced and was paroled in 2019 on account of him being a juvenile at the time.
  21. ↑ The defendant was also linked to the murder of a White female. Codefendant Sheldon Ward, a White male, was also sentenced to death, but died on death row in 2010.
  22. ↑ Both murders occurred in prison. The defendant, who was already serving a life sentence for the murder of a White male, asked for a death sentence, threatened to kill again unless he was executed, and waived his appeals.
  23. ↑ The defendant was linked to the murder of an Asian male. At his trial, prosecutors presented a videotape in which he admitted to several other murders, including the lynching of a black man.
  24. ↑ The murder of the Black victim was racially motivated. The White victim was a police officer.
  25. ↑ The White victim was a police officer, and the Black victim was a hospital security guard.
  26. ↑ The murders were racially motivated. The Mixed-race victim was White and Hispanic. During the defendant's trial, the court believed this victim was also Black.
  27. ↑ The murder was racially motivated. The defendant was a Neo-Nazi and a member of a white supremacist prison gang. Codefendant Lawrence Brewer, also a Neo-Nazi and a member of a white supremacist prison gang, was sentenced to death and executed as well. A third defendant, Shawn Berry, whose motive is disputed, received a life sentence after the prosecution conceded that he was not a white supremacist.
  28. ↑ The Black victim was a slave, but was not owned by the defendant, who himself was an indentured servant.
  29. ↑ The Black victim was a slave, but was not owned by either of the defendants, one of whom was an overseer.
  30. ↑ The Black victims were slaves, but were not owned by the defendant.
  31. ↑ The Black victim was a minor and a slave owned by the defendant. Black people were not allowed to serve as witnesses against white people at the time, but the defendant was convicted after his son and daughter testified against him at his trial.
  32. ↑ Racial animus was a factor in the murder of the Black victim.
  33. ↑ The Black victim was a slave, but was not owned by the defendant.
  34. ↑ The Black victim was a slave owned by the defendant.
  35. ↑ The murder occurred in prison. The defendant was a serial killer who was implicated in numerous other murders and killed the Black victim in retaliation for him reporting his escape plot.
  36. ↑ The Black victim was a slave owned by the defendant.
  37. ↑ The Black victim was a minor and a slave, but was not owned by either of the defendants
  38. ↑ The Black victim was a slave owned by the defendant.
  39. ↑ The Black victim was a runaway slave, but was not owned by either of the defendants. Motley was a slave owner, while Blackledge was an overseer who had been implicated in the murders of other runaway slaves.
  40. ↑ The Black victim was a slave, but was not owned by the defendant. The defendant was in a dispute with the victim's owner, whom he threatened to kill him on several occasions. When the defendant arrived at the victim's owner farm to carry out his threat, the owner was not present. As such, the defendant instead murdered the victim, who was described as his owner's favorite slave.
  41. ↑ The defendant was a slave trader who was convicted of engaging in the slave trade, which was deemed an act of piracy and thus a capital offense under the Piracy Law of 1820.
  42. ↑ The defendant transported 897 Black victims, of whom at least 29 died. 563 of the Black victims being transported were minors. The defendant was also linked to at least two other slave voyages and is suspected of a third, in which hundreds of other Black victims are believed to have died. Codefendants William Warren and David Hall, both White males, were allowed to plead guilty to lesser charges under the Slave Trade Act of 1800. Warren was sentenced to eight months in prison and Hall was sentenced to nine months in prison.
  43. ↑ The defendant was a Confederate veteran.
  44. ↑ The murder occurred in prison.
  45. ↑ The murder was racially motivated. The defendant confessed to four murders on the gallows and is suspected of additional murders.
  46. ↑ The Black victim was a minor.
  47. ↑ The Black victim was a minor. The defendant was also known as a notorious criminal and
  48. ↑ The defendant was already serving a life sentence for the murder of another Black male at the time of his conviction. Both murders may have been racially motivated, as the defendant accused both of them of trying to rape his daughter, albeit there is no evidence for these allegations. The defendant also implicated his father in the murder, but was the only one to be prosecuted.
  49. ↑ The defendant was a Confederate veteran and had previously served a prison term for malicious shooting.
  50. ↑ One of the Black victims was a minor.
  51. ↑ The murders were racially motivated. Two of the Black victims were minors. Two codefendants, also White males, were also involved in the murders, but avoided capture.
  52. ↑ Codefendant Walter Jones, a White male, was sentenced to life in prison. He was later executed after being convicted of the murder of a White male.
  53. ↑ The defendant also critically wounded a white police officer by shooting him in his spinal column and later tried to murder a fellow inmate for testifying against him as the jury deliberated on his fate.
  54. ↑ Codefendant Earl Sasser, a White male, was also sentenced to death. However, his conviction was set aside in an agreement with the judge and the prosecution. Sasser then pleaded guilty to being an accessory to murder and was resentenced to life in prison.
  55. ↑ The three defendants also gang-raped the Black victim's girlfriend, also Black, and were part of a seven-member gang that had committed a violent crime spree involving multiple rapes and robberies. The other four members of the gang, all of whom were White males, all received long prison terms since they were only implicated in rape and robbery, neither of which were capital crimes in Pennsylvania. An eighth codefendant Leon Butler, a Black male, was acquitted of murder in the same case.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Margolick, David (September 7, 1991). "Rarity for U.S. Executions: White Dies for Killing Black". The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 2, 2022. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  2. 1 2 Deborah Fins. "Death Row U.S.A. Winter 2022" (PDF). NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund . Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  3. 1 2 "Executions by Race and Race of Victim". Death Penalty Information Center . Archived from the original on June 7, 2025. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 "Execution Database". Death Penalty Information Center . Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  5. ↑ Waggoner, Martha (January 25, 1995). "Smith's Execution Only Second Time White Man Executed For Murdering Black Man". Associated Press . Archived from the original on May 16, 2023. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  6. ↑ "Executed Killer's Wife Will Face Murder Charges". Associated Press . May 23, 1995. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  7. ↑ "It's Time To Serve Justice". The Oklahoman . June 29, 1995. Archived from the original on April 22, 2022. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  8. ↑ "Stafford v. State". Justia . June 20, 1983. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  9. ↑ Schafer, Ed (December 6, 1995). "White Supremacist Executed in Missouri for Killing Black Inmate". Associated Press . Archived from the original on April 14, 2023. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  10. ↑ Smith, Gita M. "Alabama case shows how father's sins were visited on son: Whites execution for killing black didn't end inherited racism". Atlanta Journal-Constitution (newspaper). p. 4A. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Virginia's Execution History". Virginians For Alternatives To The Death Penalty. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  12. 1 2 Armstrong, Ken (June 12, 1992). "Jury: 20-Year-Old Should Die For Murder". The Daily Press Inc. Archived from the original on May 2, 2022. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  13. ↑ "Convicted killer executed by lethal injection". The Herald . March 7, 1998. p. 8. Retrieved May 2, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  14. ↑ Curtis, Kim (July 11, 1998). "Plath executed for killing". The Sun News . p. 24. Retrieved May 2, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  15. ↑ Reinitz, Jeff (September 21, 1998). "Victims' family won't watch murderer die". The Item . pp.  1, 9 . Retrieved May 2, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  16. ↑ "Man executed for role in robbery, fatal shooting". Fort Worth Star-Telegram . September 26, 1998. p. 4. Retrieved May 2, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  17. ↑ Jackson, Peter (July 8, 1999). "Heidnik execution offers no relief for victims' kin". The Morning Call . p. 12. Retrieved May 2, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  18. ↑ Hoberock, Barbara (June 22, 1999). "Eyewitness to an execution". Tulsa World . Archived from the original on May 1, 2022. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  19. ↑ "Richard Charles Johnson #773". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  20. ↑ "Larry Allen Hayes #874". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  21. ↑ Graczyk, Michael (September 13, 2003). "Hayes first white executed in Texas for killing a black". Plainview Daily Herald . Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  22. 1 2 Dow, David R. (July 8, 2011). "Death Penalty, Still Racist and Arbitrary". The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 2, 2022. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  23. ↑ "William E. Downs Jr. #1032". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  24. ↑ "Brandon Hedrick #1035". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  25. ↑ "John Yancey Schmitt #1056". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  26. ↑ "Daryl Keith Holton #1097". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  27. ↑ "David Mark Hill #1104". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  28. ↑ "Justices uphold death sentence for killing social workers". AccessWDUN. September 13, 2004. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  29. ↑ "Frank G. Spisak Jr. #1241". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  30. ↑ "Lee Andrew Taylor #1255". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  31. ↑ Graczyk, Michael (June 16, 2011). "Galveston native executed for fellow prisoner's stabbing death". Houston Chronicle . Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  32. ↑ "Lawrence Russell Brewer #1268". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  33. ↑ Graczyk, Michael (September 21, 2011). "White supremacist executed for Texas dragging". NBC News . Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  34. ↑ "Edwin Hart Turner #1280". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  35. ↑ "Cleve Foster #1307". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  36. ↑ "Robert Charles Gleason Jr. #1321". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  37. ↑ "Frederick Treesh #1324". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  38. ↑ "Harry Mitts Jr. #1346". Clark County Prosecutor. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  39. ↑ McCullough, Jolie (January 11, 2017). "Texas executes first person of the year". The Texas Tribune . Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  40. ↑ Pantazi, Andrew (August 24, 2017). "In a first, Florida executes a white defendant for killing a black victim". The Florida Times-Union . Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  41. ↑ Shapiro, Emily (April 25, 2019). "White supremacist executed for killing black man by dragging him behind truck". ABC News. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  42. ↑ Edmonds, Colbi (October 14, 2025). "Florida executes Plant City's 'Deacon of Death' for murders of 2 women". Tampa Bay Times . Archived from the original on October 15, 2025. Retrieved October 15, 2025.
  43. ↑ "Isaac Jones, MS, 1821 July 27". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  44. ↑ "George Chapman, NY, 1829 May 28". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  45. ↑ "Anthony Delisle, LA, 1852 July 2". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 15, 2025.
  46. ↑ "L. A. J. Stubbs, SC, 1853 January 14". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  47. ↑ "Thomas Motley, SC, 1854 March 3". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  48. ↑ "James Wilson, 1854 June 2". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  49. ↑ "Nathaniel Gordon, 1862 February 21".
  50. ↑ "Joseph Baker, NC, 1874 January 16". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 19, 2025.
  51. ↑ "William Foster, MO, 1876 June 19". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  52. ↑ "Harvey Thorpe, NY, 1877 December 7". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  53. ↑ "Thomas White, SC, 1880 May 14". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  54. ↑ "Daniel Keith, 1880 December 17". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  55. ↑ "Article clipped from The New York Times". The New York Times. February 26, 1881. p. 2. Retrieved October 19, 2025.
  56. ↑ "Bill Morrow, TN, 1885 June 20". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  57. ↑ Peterson, Angela (October 29, 2021). "Ghost stories of Clarksville: True crime, legends, and eye-witness accounts of the unexplained - ClarksvilleNow.com" . Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  58. ↑ "Mel Cheatham, 1890 March 19". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  59. ↑ "George Hite, white, hanged for murdering Black man, body to relatives". Virginian-Pilot. January 24, 1899. p. 7. Retrieved October 19, 2025.
  60. ↑ "Antonio Fornaro, NY, 1910 June 21". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  61. ↑ "J. A. O'berry, GA, 1911 November 27". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  62. ↑ "George Shelton, TN, 1912 July 26". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  63. ↑ "Arthur Jones, AL, 1913 March 21". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  64. ↑ "John Karayians, OH, 1923 December 8". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  65. ↑ "Erline Whitehead, KY, 1936 March 20". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  66. ↑ "Milford Exum, NC, 1938 February 18". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  67. ↑ "Milford Exum 27 Aug 1937 Sentenced". The Daily Times-News. August 27, 1937. p. 1. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
  68. ↑ "John Oreszak, Theodore Dumniak, Edwards Rose, 1938 April 25". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 19, 2025.
  69. ↑ "Three Youths Die in Chair". Reading Eagle. April 25, 1938. p. 2.
  70. ↑ "Fred Brady, 1944 April 15". archives.albany.edu. Retrieved October 14, 2025.
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