Megantereon

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Megantereon
Temporal range: Late Pliocene (Piacenzian) to Middle Pleistocene, 3.6–0.40  Ma
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Possible Early Pliocene records
Megantereon cultridens skeleton.jpg
M. cultridens skeleton on display at the Natural History Museum of Basel, Switzerland
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily:† Machairodontinae
Tribe:† Smilodontini
Genus:† Megantereon
Croizet & Jobert, 1828
Type species
Megantereon cultridens
(Cuvier, 1824)
Other species

See text

Synonyms [1]

M. cultridens

  • M. megantereonCroizet & Jobert, 1828
  • Felis megantereonBravard, 1828
  • M. macroscelisPomel, 1853

M. falconeri

  • M. nihowanensisTielhard de Chardin & Piveteau, 1930
  • M. inexpectatusTielhard de Chardin, 1939
  • M. lantianensisHu & Qi, 1978

M. whitei

  • M. gracileBroom, 1948
  • M. eurynodonEwer, 1955

Megantereon is an extinct genus of prehistoric machairodontine saber-toothed cat that lived in Eurasia, Africa and possibly North America from the late Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene. It is a member of the tribe Smilodontini, and closely related to and possibly the ancestor of the famous American sabertooth Smilodon . In comparison to Smilodon it was somewhat smaller, around the size of a jaguar, though it is thought to have had a similar hunting strategy as an ambush predator.

Contents

Taxonomy and evolution

Teeth and jaw Megantereon megantereon 7.JPG
Teeth and jaw

The type species of Megantereon, M. cultridens was described by Georges Cuvier in 1824, as Ursus cultridens, based on two teeth collected from Pliocene sediments in the Valdarno region of Tuscany, Italy, erroneously considering them to belong to a bear. In addition to the two teeth of Megantereon, Cuvier included another, much older tooth from the late Miocene of Eppelsheim in Germany in the species, which is now known to belong to the unrelated sabertooth cat Machairodus aphanistus. This decision would result in much later taxonomic confusion. In 1824, a fossil mandible of Megantereon from the Les Etouaires site in France was described by Croizet and Jobert as the new felid species Felis megantereon. As scientists were unfamiliar with the concept of sabertooths at the time, they did not realise that a large upper canine from the site belonged to the same species, instead attributing it to Cuvier's Ursus cultridens. In 1828, French paleontologist M. Bravard described a skull with preserved sabers from the Mont Perrier site in France as the species Megantereon megantereon. He suggested that Ursus cultridens should be renamed Machairodus cultridens and should be restricted to cats with serrated saberteeth (as is the case with the Eppelseim tooth, but not the unserrated teeth from Valdarno). However, in an 1890 review of sabertooth cat remains from Tuscany, Fabrini used the species name Machairodus (Meganthereon) cultridens to refer to cats which had unserrated canine saber teeth like those from Valdarno. There was much taxonomic confusion regarding the issue until 1979 when another review of sabertooth cats from Tuscany was carried out by G. Ficcarelli, who found that Megantereon crenatidens was the valid species according to nomenclatural rules for those sabertooths with unserrated sabers. [2]

The true number of species of Megantereon is highly controversial, [3] with the number of valid species differing between authors. Historically some authors argued that there was just one species. M. cultridens, but all recent authors agree that there were at least two species, also including the African M. whitei, [4] with some authors arguing for 6 or 7 valid species. [5]

The true number of species may be less than the full list of described species reproduced below: [6]

Model Megantereon model.jpg
Model

Remains of Megantereon have been found in eastern and southern Africa, and across Eurasia. [9] [4] The origin of Megantereon is uncertain. [10] Some authors have proposed that the North American M. hesperus is the ancestor of all later Megantereon species, first appearing during the early Pliocene, and dispersing over the Bering Land Bridge around 3.5-3.0 million years ago. [11] Other authors have considered this species, whose holotype specimen is a fragmentary lower jaw, indeterminate remains of Smilodontini, and therefore suggest that Megantereon is only unambiguously known from Afro-Eurasia. [9] Some authors have hypothesised that an early lineage of Megantereon was ancestral to Smilodon, though this has been disputed by others, who considered Smilodon and Megantereon to be sister groups. [10] The oldest confirmed samples of Megantereon are known from Africa from the South Turkwel site in Kenya, dated to about 3–3.5 million years ago, [12] [9] though possible older records are known in Africa dating to 4.4 million years ago. [9] In Europe, the oldest remains are known from Les Etouaries (France), a site which is now dated to 2.78 million years ago, [13] which represent among the oldest records of the genus in Euriasia. [9]

Remains from the Siwalik Hills in the northern Indian subcontinent dating to the Early Pleistocene have been attributed to the species M. falconeri. [4] Some authors have attributed all remains of Megantereon in Asia to M. falconeri, [5] but others consider the species confined to the Indian subcontinent. [4] Remains from Tajikistan in Central Asia were originally assigned to the species M. vakhscensis but this species is widely regarded as invalid and they are generally either considered either as M. cultridens or conspecific with the Indian species. [4] Teeth, including canine saber teeth and premolars of an indeterminate small species of Megantereon have been reported from the island of Java in Indonesia. Although of uncertain provenance, they probably come from the late Early Pleistocene aged Sangiran complex. [14]

Ficcarelli (1979), Turner (1987) and Sardella (1998) considered all European remains of the species to belong to the species M. cultridens, [15] though most modern authors distinguish between an earlier M. cultridens, and a later, more advanced form of Megantereon in Europe of disputed classification. [4] According to Martínez-Navarro, 1992, Martínez-Navarro and Palmqvist, 1995, Martínez-Navarro and Palmqvist, 1996, Palmqvist et al. (2007), and Li and Sun (2022), M. cultridens was replaced in Europe by the African M. whitei during the Early Pleistocene, around 1.8-2 million years ago, [11] [15] while others, including Werdelin and Flink (2018), and Lavrov et al. (2022) suggest that the advanced later European Megantereon instead represents a distinct species M. adroveri derived from M. cultridens. [3] [4] [5]

In China, Early Pleistocene remains from Renzidong Caves in Anhui, eastern China, have been attributed to the species Megantereon megantereon (a species widely considered to be a synonym of M. cultridens by European authors [11] ), though others have considered them indeterminate to the genus. Remains from Yanliang Cave, Guangxi, southern China, have also been attributed to this species, but also to the separate species Megantereon microta or also considered indeterminate within the genus. [4] The species Megantereon microta has been applied to remains from several localities in southern-central China, including Yanliang Cave, as well as Longgu Cave in Hubei. [14] The species Megantereon inexpectatus was named for remains found in Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing. [16] The species Megantereon nihowanensis was proposed in 1930 based on remains found in the Nihewan Basin in Hebei, northern China. [11] In 2020, additional remains were assigned to this species from Sabretooth Cave, Chongzuo in southernmost Guanxi, China, near the border with Vietnam. [9] Megantereon lantianensis was named for remains from Lantian, Shaanxi, central north China. Some authors have considered M. lantianensis as chonologically later than Machairodus nihowanensis in northern China, while others have considered M. lantianensis to be a synonym of Megantereon inexpectatus. Some authors have proposed that Megantereon inexpectatus is more closely related to the African M. whitei than to earlier Chinese Megantereon species. [11]

In Africa, while most remains are attributed to M. whitei, some authors have attributed the earliest known remains of the genus on the continent (dating to around 3.58–3.2 million years ago) from the Turkwel locality in Kenya to the separate species Megantereon ekidoit, based on dental differences from later remains assigned to M. whitei. [15]

Megantereon became extinct in East Africa probably no later than around 1.4 million years ago, [17] having become extinct in Africa by 1.3 million years ago. [15] The youngest remains of the genus in Europe date to around 1 million years ago, becoming extinct in the region during the mid-Pleistocene transition possibly to climatic change, which made the region more arid and increased open grassland habitat at the expense of forest. [15] The youngest remains in East Asia (which are the youngest records of the genus globally) date to the Middle Pleistocene sometime between 780,000 and 350,000 years ago, [11] and are attributed to the species Megantereon inexpectatus. [4]

Description

Skull of Megantereon (top/B) compared to that of its close relative Smilodon (bottom/C) in side-on view. Illustration by Mauricio Anton. Megantereon and Smilodon.jpg
Skull of Megantereon (top/B) compared to that of its close relative Smilodon (bottom/C) in side-on view. Illustration by Mauricio Anton.

The skull of Megantereon is very similar in morphology and proportion to that of the closely related Smilodon , with both cats exhibiting very long upper canine teeth. A notable difference exists, however, in the presence of a pronounced mandibular flange in the former, projecting downwards near the front of the mandibles. This flange is shared with other, unrelated sabertooths, such as Barbourofelis and Eusmilus , but is notably absent in Smilodon. Other differences include the lack of serrations on the posterior edge of the upper canines in Megantereon (present in Smilodon) [10] and a less exaggerated development of the mastoid process, among other relatively subtle differences in morphology. [9] According to a 2024 study by Antón and colleagues, Megantereon's upper canines were most likely exposed in life, as suggested also for Smilodon. [18]

Skull of Megantereon in oblique view, highlighting a number of anatomical features. Megantereon skull oblique view.png
Skull of Megantereon in oblique view, highlighting a number of anatomical features.

Species of Megantereon were comparable in size to living leopards or jaguars. [4] [18] Their body proportions were relatively similar to those of jaguars, but with a shorter tail, a longer neck, [2] proportionally larger vertebrae and a reduced number of vertebrae in the lumbar region, resulting in a proportionally shorter back than in feline cats. The forelimbs and shoulder of Megantereon were powerfully built with a proportionally large scapulae, while the hindlimbs were relatively more gracile and around 10% longer than the forelimbs. The limbs were relatively short, [19] particularly the lower (distal) parts. [9]

The largest species within the genus was M. falconeri, [4] with a 1995 study estimating body weight of 89.2–146.4 kg (197–323 lb) for Siwalik Megantereon with an average body weight of 120 kg (260 lb). The North American species, M. hesperus, was estimated to have weighed between 62.8–76.3 kg (138–168 lb), with an average body weight of 67.7 kg (149 lb) in the same study. The African M. whitei was estimated to have a body weight of 66.6 kg (147 lb) while specimens of Megantereon from the Early Pleistocene of Spain, attributed to Megantereon cultridens adroveri were estimated to have had a body mass of 52.8 kg (116 lb). These estimates were based on the size of the lower carnassial tooth. [20] A 1996 study based on the size of the cross-section of the humerus, suggested a body weight of about 100 kilograms (220 lb) for a specimen of Megantereon from the Early Pleistocene of Greece (attributed in the paper to M. whitei). [21] A 2007 study estimated a body mass of a large specimen of Megantereon cultridens (SE311 from Senéze, France) as 100–110 kilograms (220–240 lb), with a body length of 160 centimetres (5.2 ft). [19] Mauricio Anton's reconstruction in The Big Cats and their Fossil Relatives depicts the full specimen found at 72 centimetres (2.36 ft) at the shoulder.

Palaeobiology and paleoecology

Diagram of Megantereon performing a killing "canine shear bite" on the throat (orientated bottom up) of a prey animal, penetrating the esophagus and major blood vessels. Artwork by Mauricio Anton. Megantereon canine shear bite.jpg
Diagram of Megantereon performing a killing "canine shear bite" on the throat (orientated bottom up) of a prey animal, penetrating the esophagus and major blood vessels. Artwork by Mauricio Anton.

Megantereon is thought to have been an ambush predator. [22] It is thought to have used its powerful forelimbs to restrain prey [19] to deliver a fatal "canine-shear" throat bite, severing most of the victim's major nerves and blood vessels. To this end, it is thought to have used its powerful neck muscles to rotate the skull downward, forcing its saber teeth into the victim's neck, while the lower jaw served as an anchor. While the teeth would still risk damage, the prey animal would be killed quickly enough that any struggling would be feeble at best. [23] [24] In a study from 2007, Christiansen estimated that a M. cultridens of 106.1 kg (234 lb) may have had a bite force of 297.5 N or 66.9 lbf at the canines. [25]

Megantereon also had relatively small carnassial teeth, indicating that once making a kill, it would have eaten its prey at a leisurely pace, either hidden deep in bushes or in a tree away from potential rivals. This indicates a similarity to modern leopards and their lifestyle in that it was probably solitary. [26] Whether and to what extent Megantereon would have been scansorial and therefore able to climb trees is debated. Arguments in favor rest upon comparisons to modern leopards, and their avoidance of larger predators by the caching of kills in trees. For Megantereon, likely competitors would have included the fellow machairodont Homotherium and the hyena Pachycrocuta . Homotherium is often thought to have dominated Megantereon, thanks to its generally larger size and putative social lifestyle. This picture is somewhat reversed, however, at Zhoukoudian, China, where unusually small Homotherium specimens apparently coexisted with particularly large Megantereon specimens. Given that the latter was considerably stockier, this may have reversed the normal dominance relationship. [27] Other experts dispute that Megantereon would have been unable to climb proficiently due to its heavy build, and argue that its relatively small claws, stocky limbs and short tail argue against regular climbing. [28] In this case Megantereon would have been unlike the earlier Promegantereon (thought to be its ancestor), but similar to the later Smilodon, which is believed to have spent its time on the ground. [26] Some experts argue even if Megantereon was scansorial, its large, laterally flattened canines would’ve prevented it from dragging kills long distances or tree caching as seen with leopards. [29]

Experts have argued that Megantereon consumed exclusively soft tissues and would’ve left a significant amount of carrion to other predators much like modern cheetahs, with the felid's leftovers probably being frequently being scavenged by both hominins and hyaenids. The abundance of carcasses generated by Megantereon has been proposed as a facilitator of early hominin expansion out of Africa. [29] [21] However, this interpretation has been called into question as dental microwear suggests M. whitei, which is known for its specialized dentition, has durophagy on more similar to felids such as lions than cheetahs. [30] [31]

Isotopic analysis of Megantereon (assigned in these studies to M. whitei) from the Venta Micena locality in southeast Spain dating to the Early Pleistocene, around 1.6 million years ago, suggests that at this locality Megantereon hunted large, mainly forest-associated ungulates, including the equine Equus altidens , the muskox-relative Soergelia , and the giant deer Praemegaceros, probably ambushing prey at the border between forest and savannah. It overlapped in diet somewhat with the "European jaguar" Panthera gombaszogensis with which shared its forested habitat, while the larger sabertooth Homotherium latidens and the pack hunting canine Xenocyon lycaonoides are thought to have inhabited more open habitats. Other animals found at the site include the "southern mammoth" Mammuthus meridionalis , and the large hippo Hippopotamus antiquus . [32] [33]

A 2023 isotope study of fossils found in the Turkana Basin in Kenya, suggested that M. whitei preyed on animals with a mean mass of 72 kg (159 lb); this would have likely included the antelopes Aepyceros , Antidorcas recki , Megalotragus , Kobus sigmoidalis and Tragelaphus , the swines Kolpochoerus limnetes and Metridiochoerus andrewsi , and the three-toed equine Eurygnathohippus ethiopicum. Its diet was suggested to have overlapped with that of the contemporary hyena Crocuta ultra. [34]

Although a skull of Homo erectus georgicus (D2280) from Dmanisi in Georgia has been suggested to display bite marks by Megantereon, [35] other authors have suggested that the bite marks cannot be attributed with certainty to Megantereon, and that the giant hyena Pachycrocuta or a member of the big cat genus Panthera are more likely culprits. [36] A 2000 isotope study of remains from the Early Pleistocene Swartkrans cave in South Africa suggests that at this locality Megantereon preyed on hominins, including Paranthropus robustus and early Homo, as well as baboons. [37]

M. nihowanensis was a member of the “ Gigantopithecus fauna” of southern China. Contemporary fauna includes the giant ape Gigantopithecus , and extinct species of orangutang (Pongo), proboscideans such as Sinomastodon and Stegodon . rhinoceroses of the genus Rhinoceros , tapirs ( Tapirus ). [38] Its rarity in southern China suggests M. nihowensis was not well adapted for closed forests compared to contemporary Panthera, instead open forests or steppe with shrubs are far more ideal environments. [39]

References

  1. ↑ Werdelin, Lars; Flink, Therese (2018). "Chapter 2: The Phylogenetic Context of Smilodon". Smilodon: The Iconic Sabertooth.
  2. 1 2 Antón, Mauricio (2013). Sabertooth. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press. p. 143-145. ISBN   9780253010421.
  3. 1 2 Lavrov, A. V.; Gimranov, D. O.; Madurell-Malapeira, J.; Lopatin, A. V. (March 2022). "Megantereon adroveri from the Early Pleistocene of Taurida Cave, Crimea, and the European Lineage of Dirk-toothed Cats". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 29 (1): 43–49. doi:10.1007/s10914-021-09578-1. ISSN   1064-7554.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Stimpson, Christopher M. (May 2024). "Siwalik sabrecats: review and revised diagnosis of Megantereon fossils from the foothills of the Himalaya". Royal Society Open Science. 11 (5) 231788. Bibcode:2024RSOS...1131788S. doi:10.1098/rsos.231788. ISSN   2054-5703. PMC   11076117 . PMID   38720790.
  5. 1 2 3 Werdelin L, Flink T: The phylogenetic context of Smilodon.In Smilodon: The Iconic Sabertooth, L. Werdelin, H. G. McDonald, and C. A. and Shaw, eds. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press),2018;14–29.
  6. ↑ Turner, A (1987). "Megantereon cultridens (Cuvier) (Mammalia, Felidae, Machairodontinae) from Plio-Pleistocene Deposits in Africa and Eurasia, with Comments on Dispersal and the Possibility of a New World Origin". Journal of Paleontology. 61 (6): 1256–1268. Bibcode:1987JPal...61.1256T. doi:10.1017/S0022336000029632. JSTOR   1305213. S2CID   131803953.
  7. ↑ Min Zhu; Yaling Yan; Yihong Liu; Zhilu Tang; Dagong Qin; Changzhu Jin (2015). "The new Carnivore remains from the Early Pleistocene Yanliang Gigantopithecus fauna, Guangxi, South China". Quaternary International. 434: 17–24. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.01.009.
  8. ↑ Sharapov, S. (1986). "Kuruksaiskii Kompleks Pozdnepliotsenovykh Mlekopitaiushshikh Afgano-Tadzhikskoi Depressii" [Kuruksai Complex Of Late Pliocene Mammals Of The Afghan-Tajik Depression]. Izdatelstvo "Donish", Dushanbe (in Russian). 270.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Zhu, Min; Jiangzuo, Qigao; Qin, Dagong; Jin, Changzhu; Sun, Chengkai; Wang, Yuan; Yan, Yaling; Liu, Jinyi (December 30, 2020). "First discovery of Megantereon skull from southern China". Historical Biology . 33 (12): 3413–3422. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1867981. S2CID   234399240 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  10. 1 2 3 Wallace, Steven C.; Hulbert, Richard C. (2013-03-13). Larson, Greger (ed.). "A New Machairodont from the Palmetto Fauna (Early Pliocene) of Florida, with Comments on the Origin of the Smilodontini (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e56173. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...856173W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056173 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3596359 . PMID   23516394.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Yu Li; Boyang Sun (2022). "Megantereon (Carnivora, Felidae) in the late Early Pleistocene in China and its implications for paleobiogeography" . Quaternary International . 610: 97–107. Bibcode:2022QuInt.610...97L. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2021.09.008. ISSN   1040-6182. S2CID   240564316 . Retrieved 28 January 2024.
  12. ↑ Lewis, Margaret E.; Werdelin, Lars (November 2000). "Carnivora From the South Turkwel Hominid Site, Northern Kenya". Journal of Paleontology . 74 (6). The Paleontological Society: 1173. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2000)074<1173:cftsth>2.0.co;2. S2CID   86150362.
  13. ↑ Nomade, S.; Pastre, J. F.; Guillou, H.; Faure, M.; Guérin, C.; Delson, E.; Debard, E.; Voinchet, P.; Messager, E. (2014-06-01). "40Ar/39Ar constraints on some French landmark Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene large mammalian paleofaunas: Paleoenvironmental and paleoecological implications" . Quaternary Geochronology . Quaternary Geochronology Special Issue: Advances in Ar/Ar Dating of Quaternary Events and Processes. 21: 2–15. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2012.12.006. ISSN   1871-1014.
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  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Tura-Poch, Clàudia; Bartolini-Lucenti, Saverio; Jiangzuo, Qi-Gao; Prat-Vericat, Maria; Martínez-Navarro, Bienvenido; Rook, Lorenzo; Madurell-Malapeira, Joan (July 2024). "The disappearance of European dirk-toothed cats". Palaeoworld. 34 100856. doi: 10.1016/j.palwor.2024.05.003 .
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  20. ↑ B. M. Navarro; P. Palmqvist (1995). "Presence of the African Machairodont Megantereon whitei (Broom, 1937) (Felidae, Carnivora, Mammalia) in the Lower Pleistocene Site of Venta Micena (Orce, Granada, Spain), with some Considerations on the Origin, Evolution and Dispersal of the Genus". Journal of Archaeological Science . 22 (4): 569–582. Bibcode:1995JArSc..22..569N. doi:10.1006/jasc.1994.0054.
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  23. ↑ Turner, Alan (1997). The Big Cats and their fossil relatives . New York: Columbia University Press. p.  55. ISBN   0-231-10228-3.
  24. ↑ Turner, A.; Antón, M.; Salesa, M. J.; Morales, J. (2011-12-30). "Changing ideas about the evolution and functional morphology of Machairodontine felids". Estudios Geológicos. 67 (2): 255–276. doi: 10.3989/egeol.40590.188 . ISSN   1988-3250.
  25. ↑ Christiansen, P. (2007). "Comparative bite forces and canine bending strength in feline and sabretooth felids: implications for predatory ecology". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 151 (2): 423–437. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00321.x .
  26. 1 2 Antón, Mauricio (2013). Sabertooth. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press. p. 185. ISBN   9780253010421.
  27. ↑ Turner, Alan (1997). The Big Cats and their fossil relatives . New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN   0-231-10228-3.
  28. ↑ Palmqvist, Paul; Rodríguez-Gómez, Guillermo; Figueirido, Borja; García-Aguilar, José Manuel; Pérez-Claros, Juan Antonio (2022-01-01). "On the ecological scenario of the first hominin dispersal out of Africa" . L'Anthropologie. Industries archaïques. 126 (1): 102998. doi:10.1016/j.anthro.2022.102998. ISSN   0003-5521.
  29. 1 2 Palmqvist, Paul; Torregrosa, Vanessa; Pérez-Carlos, J. A.; et al. (2007). "A re-evaluation of the diversity of Megantereon (Mammalia, Carnivora, Machairodontinae) and the problem of species identification in extinct carnivores" . Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 27 (1): 160. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[160:AROTDO]2.0.CO;2.
  30. ↑ Domínguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Egeland, Charles P.; Cobo-Sánchez, Lucía; Baquedano, Enrique; Hulbert, Richard C. (2022). "Sabertooth carcass consumption behavior and the dynamics of Pleistocene large carnivoran guilds". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 6045. Bibcode:2022NatSR..12.6045D. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-09480-7. PMC   9061710 . PMID   35501323.
  31. ↑ Hartstone-Rose, Adam (October 2011). "Reconstructing the diets of extinct South African carnivorans from premolar "Intercuspid Notch" morphology". Journal of Zoology. 285 (2): 119–127. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00821.x.
  32. ↑ Palmqvist, Paul; Pérez-Claros, Juan A.; Janis, Christine M.; Gröcke, Darren R. (August 2008). "Tracing the ecophysiology of ungulates and predator–prey relationships in an early Pleistocene large mammal community" (PDF). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 266 (1–2): 95–111. Bibcode:2008PPP...266...95P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.03.015.
  33. ↑ Palmqvist, P.; Perez-Claros, J. A.; Janis, C. M.; Figueirido, B.; Torregrosa, V.; Grocke, D. R. (November 2008). "Biogeochemical and Ecomorphological Inferences On Prey Selection and Resource Partitioning Among Mammalian Carnivores In An Early Pleistocene Community". PALAIOS . 23 (11): 724–737. Bibcode:2008Palai..23..724P. doi:10.2110/palo.2007.p07-073r. ISSN   0883-1351.
  34. ↑ Hopley, Philip J.; Cerling, Thure E.; Crété, Lucile; et al. (2023). "Stable isotope analysis of carnivores from the Turkana Basin, Kenya: Evidence for temporally-mixed fossil assemblages". Quaternary International. 650: 12–27. Bibcode:2023QuInt.650...12H. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2022.04.004.
  35. ↑ "OUCH, THAT HURTS! Human-Sabertooth interaction at Dmanisi". June 19, 2013.
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  37. ↑ Lee-Thorp, Julia; Thackeray, J. Francis; van der Merwe, Nikolaas (2000). "The hunters and the hunted revisited" . Journal of Human Evolution. 39 (6): 565–576. Bibcode:2000JHumE..39..565L. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0436. ISSN   0047-2484. PMID   11102267.
  38. ↑ Zhu, M.; Schubert, B. W.; Liu, J.; Wallace, S. C. (2014). "A new record of the saber-toothed cat Megantereon (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from an Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus fauna, Yanliang Cave, Fusui, Guangxi, South China". Quaternary International. 354: 100–109. Bibcode:2014QuInt.354..100Z. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.052.
  39. ↑ Zhu, Min; Jiangzuo, Qigao; Qin, Dagong; Jin, Changzhu; Sun, Chengkai; Wang, Yuan; Yan, Yaling; Liu, Jinyi (December 30, 2020). "First discovery of Megantereon skull from southern China". Historical Biology . 33 (12): 3413–3422. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1867981. S2CID   234399240 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.

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