Oenothera biennis

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Oenothera biennis
Oenothera biennis, Vic-la-Gardiole 01.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Onagraceae
Genus: Oenothera
Species:
O. biennis
Binomial name
Oenothera biennis
L.
Synonyms [2]
  • Brunyera biennisBubani
  • Oenothera chicaginensisde Vries ex Renner & Cleland
  • Oenothera chicagoensisRenner ex R.E.Cleland & Blakeslee
  • Oenothera grandifloraL'Hér.
  • Oenothera muricataL.
  • Oenothera pycnocarpaG.F. Atk. & Bartlett
  • Oenothera renneriH.Scholz
  • Oenothera rubricaulisKleb.
  • Oenothera stenopetalaE.P. Bicknell
  • Oenothera suaveolensPers.
  • Onagra biennis(L.) Scop.
  • Onagra muricata(L.) Moench

Oenothera biennis, the common evening-primrose, [3] is a species of flowering plant in the family Onagraceae, native to eastern and central North America, from Newfoundland west to Alberta, southeast to Florida, and southwest to Texas, and widely naturalized elsewhere in temperate and subtropical regions. [4] Evening primrose oil is produced from the plant. [5]

Contents

Other common names include evening star, sundrop, weedy evening primrose, German rampion, hog weed, King's cure-all and fever-plant. [5] [6]

Description

Illustration of Oenothera biennis Illustration Oenothera biennis0.jpg
Illustration of Oenothera biennis

Oenothera biennis usually has a life span of two years (biennial) growing to 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in) tall in the seeding year. [7] The leaves are lanceolate, 8–18 cm (3–7 in) long and 2–6 cm (3⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) wide, [7] produced in a tight rosette the first year, and spirally on a stem the second year. However, plants with annual life cycles are documented, and have been selected for under experimental conditions in environments with low competition. [8]

Growing Cycle

Most commonly, O. biennis grows as a low, spreading herb in the first year, just a few centimetres tall, with its leaves spreading out in a rosette to cover the ground, whilst storing energy in a thick root. In the second year, it grows up much taller, to around 1.6M tall, on a semi-woody stem, which then flowers and seeds. This will usually die at first frosts, but occasionally grows another stem in the third year.

Blooming and Fruiting

Blooming lasts from late spring to late summer. The flowers are hermaphrodite, produced on a tall spike and only last until the following noon. They open visibly fast every evening producing an interesting spectacle, hence the name "evening primrose".

The blooms are yellow, 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) diameter, with four bilobed petals. The flower structure has a bright nectar guide pattern, invisible to the naked eye. This pattern is apparent under ultraviolet light and visible to its pollinators, moths, butterflies, and bees.

The fruit is a capsule 2–4 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄2 in) long and 4–6 mm (0.16–0.24 in) broad, containing numerous 1–2 mm (0.04–0.08 in) long seeds, released when the capsule splits into four sections at maturity. [9] [10] [11] [12]

Floral diagram. Oenothera.svg
Floral diagram.
Open flower in the evening Ola kwiatek zolty Niemirow nad Bugiem pl.jpg
Open flower in the evening
Closed flowers in the morning Oenothera rubricaulis 2014 G1.jpg
Closed flowers in the morning

Ecology

This plant is a weedy species that favors disturbed environments. [13] [14] It has been introduced and become established on all continents except Antarctica. [15]

The seeds of the plant are important food for birds, [16] including American goldfinch, Northern bobwhite, and mourning dove, and it is a larval host for both the primrose moth and the white-lined sphinx moth. [17] Bumblebees and honeybees also visit the flowers. [13]

The seeds of O. biennis can remain viable in the soil seed bank for 70 years or more. [13] [15]

Uses

Over the centuries, Indigenous people in North America have used the plant as food and traditional medicine. [5] [18]

The evening primrose was introduced to Europe in the early 17th century as an ornamental plant in botanical gardens where its flowers are favored for nectar by pollinators, such as bees, and its seeds are food for birds. [5] [18]

Food uses

Most of the plant parts are edible, having a taste that is mild. [18] The roots can be eaten raw or cooked like potatoes. [18] The leaves can be eaten raw in salads or cooked like spinach or in soups. [18] Anishinaabe tribes traditionally make tea from the evening primrose leaves for use as a dietary aid and to reduce fatigue. [18]

The flowering stems are preferably used when they are still young in June. They have to be peeled and can then be eaten raw or fried. The flower buds are regarded as a delicacy and can be harvested from June to October. [18]

The seeds have a protein content of about 15%, an oil content of 24%, and contain about 43% cellulose. [19] The proteins are especially rich in the sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, and tryptophan. [19] [20] Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and linoleic acid are present. [18] [21] [22] Mainly for these polyunsaturated fatty acids, evening primrose oil is sold as a dietary supplement. [18]

Research

There is not enough clinical evidence to support the use of evening primrose oil as a therapy for any medical condition. [5] A Cochrane review concluded that there was no effect of primrose oil on eczema. [23] The Mayo Clinic stated there was no good evidence that it affected eczema, diabetic neuropathy or premenstrual syndrome. [24]

The American Cancer Society stated that there was little evidence for its effectiveness as an anti-cancer agent, for which it is sometimes promoted, and "neither GLA nor other GLA-rich supplements (such as evening primrose oil) have been convincingly shown to be useful in preventing or treating any other health conditions." [25]

Adverse effects

Evening primrose oil is considered likely as safe in recommended doses. [5] [24] It may increase the risk of bleeding, a concern for patients with bleeding disorders or taking drugs that may increase bleeding. [5] The Mayo Clinic recommends caution in people with seizure disorders or mania, and by pregnant or breastfeeding women, and publishes a long list of possible side-effects. [24] Oral use of evening primrose oil may cause headaches or nausea. [24]

Traditional medicine

The whole plant and especially the leaves are traditionally boiled to tea by Anishinaabe tribes as an energy stimulant and to facilitate weight loss. [5] These tribes also use the roots externally as a poultice to treat piles and boils. [5] Additionally, they may be chewed and rubbed onto the muscles to improve strength. [18]

Agricultural practices

The knowledge of agricultural practices in the cultivation of evening primrose is relatively new and only pertain to the commercialized production of evening primrose seed oil. Information of agricultural practices for the production of root vegetable or other plant parts is not known yet.

The evening primrose prefers sunny, and arid places with loamy soil and occurs below 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. [18] One important prerequisite is to meet adequate nitrogen requirements. While too high nitrogen levels could lead to a quality and quantity decline of the oil content in the seeds, moderate nitrogen levels lead to increased seed quality and quantity. [21] Because the evening primrose is a light-dependent germinator, it is important that the seeds are not planted too deep into the soil, about 0.5–1.0 centimetre (0.2–0.4 in) deep. The cultivation of evening primrose is thus suitable for no-till farming, but the plants require an intense mechanical weed control. The seeds are tiny, about 0.3–0.7 grams (0.011–0.025 oz). They need approximately two to three weeks to germinate and are therefore very susceptible to the outgrowth of weeds.

Evening primrose seeds can be sown in the first half of April (spring seeds) or from mid-July to mid-August (autumn seeds). [18] [21] The time of harvest is approximately 75 to 80 days (spring seeds) or 100 days (autumn seeds) after flowering, and clearly influenced by the plant variety, climate conditions, soil fertility and sowing time. [21] [22] The population development and thus seed maturation of the evening primrose is very heterogeneous which is a rather difficult production factor. [18]

There is not much water needed during the vegetation period. [18] A study has shown, that the irrigation with salt water could increase the oil yield and quality in evening primrose seeds. This might be a great opportunity especially in regions with limited water resources. Thus, the evening primrose could be a valuable alternative oil crop in arid regions. [18]

Finally, the cultivation of evening primrose requires a proper field management otherwise the plant can become invasive. [18] If the seeds are used for pharmaceutical purposes it is also important to grow the evening primrose without any pesticides to avoid any chemical residues. [18]

Related Research Articles

<i>Oenothera</i> Genus of plants

Oenothera is a genus of about 145 species of herbaceous flowering plants native to the Americas. It is the type genus of the family Onagraceae. Common names include evening primrose, suncups, and sundrops. They are not closely related to the true primroses.

<i>Salvia hispanica</i> Species of flowering plant in the mint and sage family Lamiaceae

Salvia hispanica, one of several related species commonly known as chia, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to central and southern Mexico and Guatemala. It is considered a pseudocereal, cultivated for its edible, hydrophilic chia seed, grown and commonly used as food in several countries of western South America, western Mexico, and the southwestern United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safflower</span> Species of plant

Safflower is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant in the family Asteraceae. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and was used by the early Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande as a substitute for saffron. Plants are 30 to 150 cm tall with globular flower heads having yellow, orange, or red flowers. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having seasonal rain. It grows a deep taproot which enables it to thrive in such environments.

gamma-Linolenic acid or GLA is an n−6, or omega-6, fatty acid found primarily in seed oils. When acting on GLA, arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase produces no leukotrienes and the conversion by the enzyme of arachidonic acid to leukotrienes is inhibited.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Onagraceae</span> Family of flowering plants

The Onagraceae are a family of flowering plants known as the willowherb family or evening primrose family. They include about 650 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees in 17 genera. The family is widespread, occurring on every continent from boreal to tropical regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winged bean</span> Species of legume plant

The winged bean, also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, star bean, kamrangi bean, pea, dragon bean, is a tropical herbaceous legume plant.

<i>Primula vulgaris</i> Species of flowering plant

Primula vulgaris, the common primrose, is a species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and parts of southwest Asia. The common name is primrose, or occasionally common primrose or English primrose to distinguish it from other Primula species also called primroses. None of these are closely related to the evening primroses.

<i>Cyperus esculentus</i> Species of grass-like plant

Cyperus esculentus is a species of plant in the sedge family widespread across much of the world. It is found in most of the Eastern Hemisphere, including Southern Europe, Africa and Madagascar, as well as the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. C. esculentus is cultivated for its edible tubers, called earth almonds or tiger nuts, as a snack food and for the preparation of horchata de chufa, a sweet, milk-like beverage.

<i>Oenothera speciosa</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera speciosa is a species in the evening primrose family known by several common names, including pinkladies, pink evening primrose, showy evening primrose, Mexican primrose, and buttercups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borage seed oil</span> Oil derived from the seeds of Borago officinalis

Borage seed oil is derived from the seeds of the plant, Borago officinalis (borage).

<i>Thlaspi arvense</i> Species of flowering plant in the cabbage family Brassicaceae

Thlaspi arvense, known by the common name field pennycress, is a flowering plant in the cabbage family Brassicaceae. It is native to Eurasia, and is a common weed throughout much of North America and its home.

<i>Oenothera fruticosa</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera fruticosa, the narrowleaf evening primrose or narrow-leaved sundrops, is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family.

<i>Oenothera caespitosa</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera caespitosa, known commonly as tufted evening primrose, desert evening primrose, rock-rose evening primrose, or fragrant evening primrose, is a perennial plant of the genus Oenothera native to much of western and central North America, in habitats such as talus slopes and sandy plains. It is normally night-blooming.

<i>Oenothera elata</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera elata is a species of Oenothera known by the common name Hooker's evening primrose or tall evening primrose. Subspecies include hookeri, hirsutissima, longisima, jamesii, villosa and elata. It is native to much of western and central North America. The plants are quite tall, especially the hookeri subspecies, native to California, which can reach about 1.8 meters height. The plants are found along roadsides, in moist meadows, or in woodland, from sea level up to 9,000 ft (2,700 m) in elevation.

<i>Cymbopogon martinii</i> Species of grass

Cymbopogon martinii is a species of grass in the genus Cymbopogon (lemongrasses) native to India and Indochina but widely cultivated in many places for its aromatic oil. It is best known by the common name palmarosa as it smells sweet and rose-like. Other common names include Indian geranium, gingergrass, rosha, and rosha grass.

<i>Cleome gynandra</i> Species of flowering plant

Cleome gynandra is a species of Cleome that is used as a green vegetable. It is known by many common names including Shona cabbage, African cabbage, spiderwisp, cat's whiskers, and stinkweed. It is an annual wildflower native to Africa but has become widespread in many tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.

<i>Oenothera laciniata</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera laciniata is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common name cutleaf evening primrose. It is native to the eastern United States but it can be found in many other places as an introduced species and sometimes a noxious weed. It is reported from Hawaii, Australia, Britain, France, Korea, Japan, and other areas. This is an annual or short-lived perennial herb producing a spreading stem from a hairy rosette of deeply cut or lobed leaves. Flowers occur in the axils of leaves higher on the stem. Each flower has pale to deep yellow petals up to about 2 centimeters long which fade orange, pink, or red with age. The fruit is a cylindrical capsule up to 5 centimeters in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Octadecatrienoic acid</span> Index of chemical compounds with the same name

An octadecatrienoic acid is a chemical compounds with formula C
18H
30O
2, a polyunsaturated fatty acid with whose molecule has an 18-carbon unbranched backbone with three double bonds.

<i>Oenothera harringtonii</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera harringtonii is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common names Arkansas Valley evening primrose and Colorado Springs evening primrose. It is endemic to the state of Colorado in the United States.

<i>Oenothera gaura</i> Species of flowering plant

Oenothera gaura, formerly known as Gaura biennis, the biennial gaura or biennial beeblossom, is a North American flowering plant that can reach 6 ft (1.8 m) in height at maturity. Its upper half is made up of flowering stems, which are covered with soft, white hairs. It has light pink colored flowers, which turn a vibrant red/pink color in the late summer to early fall seasons. These colors make this plant attractive to butterflies and bees, and are in full bloom just before many fall plant species begin to bloom.

References

  1. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org.
  2. ↑ "Oenothera biennis". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 7 December 2014– via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
  3. ↑ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  4. ↑ "Oenothera biennis". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 17 December 2017.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Evening primrose oil". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 August 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
  6. ↑ Blanchan, N. (1922). Wild Flowers Worth Knowing. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.
  7. 1 2 Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. (2009) [1982]. Edible Wild Plants: A North American Field Guide to Over 200 Natural Foods. New York: Sterling. p. 103. ISBN   978-1-4027-6715-9. OCLC   244766414. Archived from the original on 2022-03-20. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  8. ↑ Agrawal, Anurag A.; Johnson, Mark T.J.; Hastings, Amy P.; Maron, John L. (2013). "A Field Experiment Demonstrating Plant Life-History Evolution and Its Eco-Evolutionary Feedback to Seed Predator Populations". The American Naturalist. 181: S35-45. doi:10.1086/666727. hdl: 1813/66733 . PMID   23598358. S2CID   15852492.
  9. ↑ Borealforest: Oenothera biennis Archived 2007-07-13 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ Plants of British Columbia: Oenothera biennis Archived 2016-12-21 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ↑ Jepson Flora: Oenothera biennis Archived 2006-09-18 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ↑ Ultraviolet Flowers: Oenothera biennis Archived 2006-11-14 at the Wayback Machine
  13. 1 2 3 "Common Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis)". illinoiswildflowers.info.
  14. ↑ "Oenothera biennis (Evening Primrose)". plants.ces.ncsu.edu. NC State Extension.
  15. 1 2 Steckel, Lawrence E.; Sosnoskie, Lynn M.; Steckel, Sandra J. (2019). "Common evening-primrose (Oenothera biennis L.)". Weed Technology. 33 (5): 757–760. doi: 10.1017/wet.2019.53 . S2CID   203879053.
  16. ↑ "Oenothera biennis". Native Plant Database. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, University of Texas at Austin . Retrieved 7 December 2014.
  17. ↑ The Xerces Society (2016), Gardening for Butterflies: How You Can Attract and Protect Beautiful, Beneficial Insects, Timber Press.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Immel, D.L. (21 June 2001). "Common evening primrose" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture, National Plant Data Center.
  19. 1 2 Hudson, B. (1984). "Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) oil and seed". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 61 (3): 540–543. doi:10.1007/bf02677026. S2CID   85005706.
  20. ↑ Brosnan, J.T.; Brosnan, M.E. (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview". The Journal of Nutrition. 136 (6): 1636S–1640S. doi: 10.1093/jn/136.6.1636s . PMID   16702333.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Ghasemnezhad, A.; Honermeier, B. (2008). "Yield, oil constituents, and protein content of evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) seeds depending on harvest time, harvest method and nitrogen application". Industrial Crops and Products. 28 (1): 17–23. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2007.12.006.
  22. 1 2 Ghasemnezhad, A.; Honermeier, B. (2007). "Seed yield, oil content and fatty acid composition of Oenothera biennis L. affected by harvest date and harvest method". Industrial Crops and Products. 25 (3): 274–281. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2006.12.005.
  23. ↑ Bamford, Joel (30 April 2013). "Oral evening primrose oil and borage oil for eczema". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013 (4): CD004416. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004416.pub2. PMC   8105655 . PMID   23633319.
  24. 1 2 3 4 "Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.)". Mayo Clinic. 13 November 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
  25. ↑ "Gamma linolenic acid". American Cancer Society. 13 May 2010. Archived from the original on 6 August 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
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