You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (December 2009)Click [show] for important translation instructions.
View a machine-translated version of the German article.
Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:Listspinne]]; see its history for attribution.
You may also add the template {{Translated|de|Listspinne}} to the talk page.
Striking characteristics of Pisaura mirabilis are its long legs (the fourth pair being the longest) and its slender abdomen (opisthosoma). The male is between 10 and 13mm, while the female is 12 to 15mm.[1] After final ecdysis, the male spiders weigh on average 54mg and females 68mg.
The prosoma (cephalothorax) is variable in color, ranging from light to reddish brown and from gray to black. A lighter stripe is visible down the middle of the prosoma. The opisthosoma (abdomen) is long and narrow and tapered towards the rear end.
The female spiders has a dark patch (epigyne) on the underside of her abdomen that includes the copulatory organs. Male genital openings can be found at the same location, but remain inconspicuous.
Patterning and coloration varies due to polymorphism.[2][3][4] These patterns, which can be caused by hair and pigments, change with the growth of the spider (ontogenesis).[5]
Male spiders exhibit a stronger contrast than females and appear black, especially when compared to the white nuptial gifts. Females tend to get paler towards the end of summer. The stripe along the back of the body can be found in all spiders and can be seen as crypsis, a protective measure against predators.
Pisaura mirabilis
The pedipalps in nymphs and females look similar to legs. In males, this structure gets thicker towards the end and is used to store sperm until reproduction (bulbus). The outer chelicerae segment consists of three teeth. They catch their prey during the day and at night and are also active on warm winter days.
P. mirabilis lives in all habitats, but prefers wet environments, such as wet meadows, lowland moors, salt marshes, dunes, the edge of forests, and wet hedges. It inhabits all strata, from the ground to the top of trees, but are not found under rocks or in caves. These spiders can be found at altitudes up to 1100m.[9]
Life cycle
The spider develops from a fertilised egg inside a cocoon into an embryo. After inversion, the embryo enters the prelarval stage. A few hours later, the prelarva moults into a larva.[10] At this stage, the spiders are colorless but mobile, and can detect sensory signals from its surrounding. They do not have any eyes yet and their chelicerae are short and sharp. A few fine hairs can be found on their feet.
Depending on the temperature, the larvae moult after 4.5 – 7.5 days into the first nymphal stage. Once leaving the cocoon through an opening, they live in a protective web made by the mother, where they feed on the leftover yolk from their eggs and drink from water droplets. After about a week, the nymphs start suspending themselves from their own spider silk and start preying on fruit flies. This usually happens in the sixth or seventh nymphal stage. Cannibalism does not occur in the first few days, but occurs in later stages. The whole nymphal stage is divided into 12 stages at most. Male spiders become sexually mature in the 9th to 11th stages, females in the 10th to 12th stages. Temperature can influence the development and number of stages, with colder temperatures slowing down the process. Under good conditions, spiders can complete their nymphal development in fewer than 12 stages.[11] The duration from prelarval stage to final moult (maturity) typically lasts 257 days for males (stage 10) and 289 days for females (stage 11). Adulthood is the period after final moult till death. Females live longer than males, the record being 247 days for females and 186.5 days for males.
Depending on habitat, nursery web spiders hibernate once or twice during the nymphal stage. The period of hibernation (diapause) is spent in ground vegetation under leaves, moss, and stones. They can be found in garages and houses, as well. Some individuals in the south of France have been found under loose bark of the plane tree. The nymphs in stages 6 to 8 start hibernating in November and continue with their development towards the end of February to the beginning of March.
Pisaura mirabilis in Western and Central Europe reach sexual maturity in May, when sperm uptake, the search for females, offering of nuptial gifts, and courtship and mating takes place. In Northern and Eastern Europe, spiders reach sexual maturity only in June, while in Southern Europe, they become sexually mature in April.
Nursery web spiders have a one-year annual cycle in southern Europe. They grow in summer, hibernate in winter, reach adulthood in spring, and reproduce and then die in autumn. Their offspring are sexually mature in the following spring. Spiders from the north have a two-year cycle, having to go through two hibernations before reaching sexual maturity. Spiders in Western and Central Europe have a mix of both one- and two-year cycles. Males have a two-month period to reproduce; females three and a half.
Mating system
Males of this species offer a nuptial gift to potential female mates. Some Pisaura mirabilis specimens have also been observed to use thanatosis during courtship.[12] After presenting the nuptial gift to the female, she bites on to the gift and the male moves to her epigyne to deposit sperm with his pedipalps. Throughout copulation, the male keeps a leg on the gift so as to be ready if she tries to escape with it or attack him. At this time, the male may feign death – his limbs become straight and he is dragged along with the female while holding on to the gift. When the female stops, the male slowly "resurrects" and continues attempting to mate.[12] Thanatosis in P. mirabilis has been observed to significantly increase the male's odds of successfully copulating from less than 30% to 89%.[12][13]
Predators, parasites, and pathogens
Predators of Pisaura mirabilis includes spider wasps, tree frogs, lizards, and song birds during the day, and toads, shrew mice, and bats at night. Other spider species, as well as from the same species (cannibalism), consider P. mirabilis as prey.
Nursery web spiders are often parasitised by nematodes, parasitic wasps, and Acari. These parasites infect the spider and its eggs and cocoons, which can lead to destruction of a whole clutch of eggs.[citation needed]
Baculoviridae and Rickettsia species infect nursery web spiders, as well. They most likely enter the gastrointestinal tract via the spiders' prey. Not only can nymphs and adults be infected, but different stages in the cocoon are infected, as well.[citation needed]
Nursery web spiders (Pisauridae) are a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1890. Females of the family are known for building special nursery webs. When their eggs are about to hatch, a female spider builds a tent-like web, places her egg sac inside, and stands guard outside, hence the family's common name. Like wolf spiders, however, nursery web spiders are roaming hunters that do not use webs for catching prey.
The diving bell spider or water spider is the only species of spider known to live almost entirely under water. It is the only member of the genus Argyroneta. When out of the water, the spider ranges in colour from mid to dark brown, although the hairs on the abdomen give it a dark grey, velvet-like appearance. It is native to freshwater habitats in Europe and Asia.
Dolomedes is a genus of large spiders of the family Pisauridae. They are also known as fishing spiders, raft spiders, dock spiders or wharf spiders. Almost all Dolomedes species are semiaquatic, with the exception of the tree-dwelling D. albineus of the southeastern United States. Many species have a striking pale stripe down each side of the body.
Philaeus chrysops is a species of jumping spider (Salticidae).
The raft spider, scientific name Dolomedes fimbriatus, is a large semi-aquatic spider of the family Pisauridae found throughout north-western and central Europe. It is one of only two species of the genus Dolomedes found in Europe, the other being the slightly larger Dolomedesplantarius which is endangered in the UK.
Cribellum literally means "little sieve", and in biology the term generally applies to anatomical structures in the form of tiny perforated plates.
Aculepeira ceropegia, the oak spider, is an orb-weaving spider species belonging to the family Araneidae.
Pisaura is a genus of Eurasian spiders in the family Pisauridae.
Ancylometes is a genus of Central and South American semiaquatic wandering spiders first described by Philipp Bertkau in 1880. Originally placed with the nursery web spiders, it was moved to the Ctenidae in 1967. The genus name is derived in part from Ancient Greek "ἀγκύλος", meaning "crooked, bent".
Evarcha falcata is a species of 'jumping spiders' belonging to the family Salticidae.
Sexual cannibalism is when an animal, usually the female, cannibalizes its mate prior to, during, or after copulation. It is a trait observed in many arachnid orders, several insect and crustacean clades, gastropods, and some snake species. Several hypotheses to explain this seemingly paradoxical behavior have been proposed. The adaptive foraging hypothesis, aggressive spillover hypothesis and mistaken identity hypothesis are among the proposed hypotheses to explain how sexual cannibalism evolved. This behavior is believed to have evolved as a manifestation of sexual conflict, occurring when the reproductive interests of males and females differ. In many species that exhibit sexual cannibalism, the female consumes the male upon detection. Females of cannibalistic species are generally hostile and unwilling to mate; thus many males of these species have developed adaptive behaviors to counteract female aggression.
Dolomedes minor is a spider in the family Pisauridae that is endemic to New Zealand, where it is known as the nursery web spider.
The great raft spider or fen raft spider is a European species of spider in the family Pisauridae. Like other Dolomedes spiders, it is semiaquatic, hunting its prey on the surface of water. It occurs mainly in neutral to alkaline, unpolluted water of fens and grazing marsh.
The Japanese water spider is a subspecies of the water spider. In Japanese it is called the mizugumo. The Japanese water spider is almost exactly like its European cousin. The only distinction between the two is that the Japanese water spider has larger genitalia. Like its cousin, the Japanese water spider lives under water by constructing diving bells, underwater spheres which contain oxygen, which they live in.
Dolomedes tenebrosus or dark fishing spider is a fishing spider found in the United States and Canada.
The six-spotted fishing spider is an arachnid from the nursery web spider family Pisauridae. This species is from the genus Dolomedes, or the fishing spiders. Found in wetland habitats throughout North America, these spiders are usually seen scampering along the surface of ponds and other bodies of water. They are also referred to as dock spiders because they can sometimes be witnessed quickly vanishing through the cracks of boat docks. D. triton gets its scientific name from the Greek mythological god Triton, who is the messenger of the big sea and the son of Poseidon.
Formally, a nuptial gift is a material presentation to a recipient by a donor during or in relation to sexual intercourse that is not simply gametes in order to improve the reproductive fitness of the donor. Often, such a gift will improve the fitness of the recipient as well. This definition implies neutral gifts, costly gifts and beneficial gifts regarding the fitness of the recipient.
Pisaurina mira, also known as the American nursery web spider, due to the web it raises young in, is a species of spider in the family Pisauridae. They are often mistaken for wolf spiders (Lycosidae) due to their physical resemblance. P. mira is distinguished by its unique eye arrangement of two rows.
Xysticus cristatus, the common crab spider, is a European spider from the family Thomisidae.
Steatoda paykulliana is a species of false black widow spider in the tangle-web spiders family, native to the Mediterranean countries, Southern Europe and Western Asia. The species is named in honor of the Swedish naturalist Gustaf von Paykull (1757–1826).
↑ Carl Wilhelm Hahn (Hrsg.: Peter Sacher), Monographie der Spinnen (1820–1836) – Mit einem Kommentar in deutsch und englisch herausgegeben von Peter Sacher, Reprint der Orig.-Ausg. Nürnberg 1820–1836, Zentralantiquariat der DDR, Leipzig 1988, S. 1–143, ISBN3-7463-0080-0, hier S. 67 (unter "Dolomodes mirabilis, Walkenaer"), S. 71, Tafel 18 (unter „Dolomedes mirabilis, Walkenaer“)
↑ Carl Wilhelm Hahn, Die Arachniden – Getreu nach der Natur abgebildet und beschrieben, Zweiter Band, C. H. Zeh'sche Buchhandlung, Nürnberg 1834, hier S. 35 Originalexemplar von Oxford University Google Books
↑ W. Bösenberg, Die Spinnen Deutschlands, Zoologica – Original-Abhandlungen aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Zoologie, 14 [1901–1903], (35), Fünfte und sechste Lieferung [1903], Nägele, Stuttgart 1903, S. 385–465, hier S. 410
↑ Rupert Aechter, Untersuchungen über die Zeichnung und Färbung der Araneen unter Berücksichtigung der Ontogenese und Phylogenie, Sitzungsberichte – Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften – Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse – Abteilung I, 164, (8), 1955, S. 545–606, hier v. a. S. 545–606, 591–593
↑ P. Blandin: Etudes sur les Pisauridae africaines. I-XI. Rev. Suisse Zool. 81, Rev. Zool. afr. 89–93, 1974–1979
↑ P. Blandin: Cycle biologique et production de l'araignée Afropisaura valida (Simon 1885)(Araneae, Pisauridae) dans une savane d'Afrique occidentale (Lamto, Côte-d'Ivoire). Trop. Ecol. 20: 78–93, 1974
↑ Foelix, Rainer (2010). Biology of Spiders. Oxford University Press. p.270.
↑ Nentwig, Wolfgang (2012). Ecophysiology of Spiders. Springer Science & Business Media. p.333.
1 2 3 Hansen, S. H., Gonzalez S. F., Toft, S., & Bilde, T. (2008). Thanatosis as an adaptive male mating strategy in the nuptial gift-giving spider Pisaura mirabilis. Behavioral Ecology 19: 546–551. doi:10.1093/beheco/arm165
P. Blandin: Cycle biologique et production de l'araignée Afropisaura valida (Simon 1885)(Araneae, Pisauridae) dans une savane d'Afrique occidentale (Lamto, Côte-d'Ivoire). Trop. Ecol. 20: 78–93, 1974
P. Blandin: Etudes sur les Pisauridae africaines. I-XI. Rev. Suisse Zool. 81, Rev. Zool. afr. 89–93, 1974–1979
J.-C. Bonaric: Contribution à l'étude de la biologie du développement chez l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1758). Approche physiologique des phénomènes de mue et de diapause hivernale. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat, Univ. Montpellier, 1980
J.-C. Bonaric: Evolution du métabolisme respiratoire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae) au cours de la période nympho-imaginale. Rev. Arachnol. 1: 33–43, 1977
J.-C. Bonaric: La cycle vitale de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis et ses adapatations. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 110 (3): 269–274, 1985
J.-C. Bonaric: Le développement post-embryonnaire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae). C. R. Acad. Sci. sér. D. 278: 3227–3230, 1974
J.-C. Bonaric: Utilisation des barêmes trichobothriotaxiques comme critère d'âge chez Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae). Ann. Zool. 12e sér. 17: 521–534, 1975
W. Bösenberg: Die Spinnen Deutschlands. Zoologica 14: 409–410, 1901
P. M. Brignoli: A Catalogue of the Aranea described between 1940 and 1981. Manchester Univ. Press, 1983
P. M. Brignoli: Spiders from Libanon. III. Some notes on the Pisauridae, Agelenidae and Oxyopidae of the Near East. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 4 (5): 204–209, 1978
P. M. Brignoli: Zur Problematik der mediterranen Pisaura-Arten (Arachnida, Araneae, Pisauridae). Zool. Anz. 213: 33–43, 1984
C. Clerck: Svenska spindlar. Aranei svecici. Stockholm, 1757
F. Dahl, M. Dahl: 3. Spinnentiere oder Arachnoidea. I-II. G. Fischer Jena, 1926/27
F. Dahl: Die Lycosiden oder Wolfsspinnen Deutschlands und ihre Stellung im Haushalte der Natur. Nach statistischen Untersuchungen dargestellt. Nova acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. 88: 175–678, 1908
Rainer F. Foelix: Biologie der Spinnen. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1992, ISBN3-13-575802-8
K. De Geer: Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Insekten. 3. Abhandlung. Von den Spinnen. 7. Raspe Nürnberg, 1783
C. D. Dondale, R. Legendre: Winter diapause in a Mediterranean population of Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck). Bull. Br. Arach. Soc. 2 (1): 6–10
P. Grüne: Westfälische Spinnen. III. Die Haidespinnen. Natur Offenb.19: 213–223, 1873
Hänggi, Stöckli und Nentwig: Lebensräume mitteleuropäischer Spinnen. Centre Suisse de cartographie de la faune. Neuchatel Verlag, 1995, ISBN2-884-14008-5
Stefan Heimer: Wunderbare Welt der Spinnen. Landbuch Verlag, Hannover, 1988, ISBN3-7842-0382-5
Stefan Heimer, Wolfgang Nentwig: Spinnen Mitteleuropas. Ein Bestimmungsbuch. Parey Verlag, Berlin, Hamburg, 1991 ISBN3-489-53534-0
Dick Jones: Der Kosmos Spinnenführer. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, 1990, ISBN3-4400-6141-8
A. Lang, C. Klarenberg: Experiments on the foraging behaviour of the hunting spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae): Utilisation of single prey items. Eur. J. Ent. 94: 453–459, 1997
A. Lang: A note on body size parameters and some life data of Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae). Proc. XV. Eur. Coll. Arachnol. 111–115, 1995
A. Lang: Silk investment in gifts by males of the nuptial feeding spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae). Behaviour 133: 697–716, 1996
A. Lang: Die Spinnseide des Brautgeschenks bei Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1757) (Araneae, Pisauridae). Diplomarbeit Univ. München, 1991
G. Le Pape: Relations entre comportement alimentaire et comportement sexuel chez Pisaura mirabilis (Aranéide, Pisauride). Rev. Comp. Anim. 8: 71–75, 1974
G. Le Pape: Contribution à l'étude du comportment reproducteur en liaison avec l'alimentation chez quatre Arachnides: Teutana grossa, Pardosa lugubris, Pisaura mirabilis, Buthus occitanus. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Rennes, 1972
Willi Lierath: Aus dem Reichtum der Natur. Die Brautgeschenkspinne. Vögel der Heimat 58 (12): 238–239, 1988
Carl Linné: Systema naturae. Per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus 1. Editio decima, reformata, Holmiae, Facsimile 1956 Jarrolds Norwich, 1758
Martin Lister: Historiae animalum angliae tres tractatus. London, 1678
H. Lucas: Arachnides, Myriapodes et Thysanoures. In: M. P. Barker-Webb, S. Berthelot: Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries. Béthune, Paris, 1843
Rainar Nitzsche: Beutefang und Brautgeschenk bei der Raubspinne Pisaura mirabilis (CL.)(Aranea,Pisauridae). Reprint der Diplomarbeit von 1981. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, ISBN978-3-930304-73-8
Rainar Nitzsche: Brautgeschenk und Reproduktion bei Pisaura mirabilis, einschließlich vergleichender Untersuchungen an Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Araneida, Pisauridae). Reprint der Dissertation von 1987. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, ISBN978-3-930304-74-5
Rainar Nitzsche: Brautgeschenk und Umspinnen der Beute bei Pisaura mirabilis, Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Arachnida, Araneida, Pisauridae). Verh. naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg (NF) 30, 1988
Rainar Nitzsche: Brautgeschenke bei Spinnen – die heimische Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und ihre Verwandten, die Kinderstubennetzspinnen (Pisauridae). Arachne 13 (1): 11–29, 2008
Rainar Nitzsche: Courtship, mating and agonistic behaviour in Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757). Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 15 (4): 93–120, 2011
Rainar Nitzsche: Die Spinne mit dem Brautgeschenk Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und das Paarungsverhalten verwandter Arten der Familie Pisauridae. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 1999, 2007, ISBN978-3-930304-62-2
Rainar Nitzsche: Ein Geschenk für die Braut. Ohne Mitgift haben Raubspinnenmännchen keine Chance. Ein Herz für Tiere 7/1986
Rainar Nitzsche: Raubspinnen. Kleine Geschenke fördern die Liebe. GEO 8/1985
P. Pénicaud: Dynamique d'une population de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis Cl. dans une lande bretonne. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Paris, 1979
H. Pfletschinger: Einheimische Spinnen. Die Webspinnen – Arten und Verhalten in 120 Farbfotos. Franck Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart, 1976
C. F. Roewer: Katalog der Aranae von 1758 bis 1954. 2a: 110–151, Bruxelles, 1954
F. Sauer, J. Wunderlich: Die schönsten Spinnen Europas. Fauna Verlag, Karlsfeld, 1984
G. Schmidt: Das Liebes- und Familienleben der Heidejagdspinne. Aus der Heimat 60: 153–154, 1952
G. Schmidt: Psychologie einer Spinne. Die Heidejagdspinne und ihre Bedeutung für die Umweltforschung. Orion 10: 560–568, 1955
G. Schmidt: Spinnen. Alles Wissenswerte über Lebensweise, Sammeln, Haltung und Zucht. A. Philler, Minden, 1980
G. Schmidt: Zur Spinnenfauna der Kanaren, Madeiras und der Azoren. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. Ser. A 451: 1–46
G. Schmidt: Zur Spinnenfauna von Gran Canaria. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 19: 347–392, 1973
G. Schmidt: Zur Spinnenfauna von La Gomera. Zool. Beitr. (N. F.) 27: 85–107
G. Schmidt: Zur Spinnenfauna von Teneriffa. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 14: 387–425, 1968
H. W. Smolik: Weltreich der Tiere. Naturalis Verlag, München, 1987
H. Stern, E. Kullmann: Leben am seidenen Faden. Die rätselvolle Welt der Spinnen. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 1975
J. Wunderlich: Die Spinnen der Kanarischen Inseln und Madeiras. Triops Verlag, Langen, 1987
Films
J. Bublath: Räuber mit Netz. Das aufregende Leben der Spinnen. Aus Forschung und Technik, ZDF, 1987
P. Hayden: Wenn Tiere zu Kannibalen werden. Killer in den eigenen Reihen, SWR (Südwest 3), 1999
P. Schneider: Pisaura mirabilis, die Raub-, Jagd- oder Listspinne, HWF 14, Begleitheft Heidelberg, 1998
E. R. Skinner, G. H. Thompson, J. A. L. Cooke: Commentary, spiders film 11: Pisauridae. Pisaura mirabilis – courtship and mating. Dolomedes fimbriatus – capture of food. Oxford (IWF W1017 T), 1966/67
H. Stern: Bemerkungen über Spinnen 2.Meilensteine des Dokumentarfilms, Ein Franckh-Kosmos Video, Franckh Kosmos Stuttgart, 1975
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
