Research reactor

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The CROCUS research reactor of the Ecole polytechnique federale de Lausanne , in Switzerland Crocus-p1020483.jpg
The CROCUS research reactor of the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne , in Switzerland

Research reactors are nuclear fission-based nuclear reactors that serve primarily as a neutron source. They are also called non-power reactors, in contrast to power reactors that are used for electricity production, heat generation, or maritime propulsion.

Contents

Purpose

The neutrons produced by a research reactor are used for neutron scattering, non-destructive testing, analysis and testing of materials, production of radioisotopes, research and public outreach and education. Research reactors that produce radioisotopes for medical or industrial use are sometimes called isotope reactors. Reactors that are optimised for beamline experiments nowadays compete with spallation sources.

Technical aspects

Research reactors are simpler than power reactors and operate at lower temperatures. They need far less fuel, and far less fission products build up as the fuel is used. On the other hand, their fuel requires more highly enriched uranium, typically up to 20% U-235, [1] although some use 93% U-235; while 20% enrichment is not generally considered usable in nuclear weapons, 93% is commonly referred to as "weapons-grade". They also have a very high power density in the core, which requires special design features. Like power reactors, the core needs cooling, typically natural or forced convection with water, and a moderator is required to slow the neutron velocities and enhance fission. As neutron production is their main function, most research reactors benefit from reflectors to reduce neutron loss from the core.

Conversion to low enriched uranium

The International Atomic Energy Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy initiated a program in 1978 to develop the means to convert research reactors from using highly enriched uranium (HEU) to the use of low enriched uranium (LEU), in support of its nonproliferation policy. [2] [3] By that time, the U.S. had supplied research reactors and highly enriched uranium to 41 countries as part of its Atoms for Peace program. In 2004, the U.S. Department of Energy extended its Foreign Research Reactor Spent Nuclear Fuel Acceptance program until 2019. [4]

As of 2016, a National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report concluded converting all research reactors to LEU cannot be completed until 2035 at the earliest. In part this is because the development of reliable LEU fuel for high neutron flux research reactors, that does not fail through swelling, has been slower than expected. [5] As of 2020, 72 HEU research reactors remain. [6]

Designers and constructors

While in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s there were a number of companies that specialized in the design and construction of research reactors, the activity of this market cooled down afterwards, and many companies withdrew.

The market has consolidated today into a few companies that concentrate the key projects on a worldwide basis.

The most recent international tender (1999) for a research reactor was that organized by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation for the design, construction and commissioning of the Open-pool Australian lightwater reactor (OPAL). Four companies were prequalified: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), INVAP, Siemens and Technicatom. The project was awarded to INVAP that built the reactor. In recent years, AECL withdrew from this market, and Siemens and Technicatom activities were merged into Areva.

Classes of research reactors

Research centers

A complete list can be found at the List of nuclear research reactors.

Research centers that operate a reactor:

Reactor NameCountryCityInstitutionPower LevelOperation Date
BR2 Reactor Belgium Mol Belgian Nuclear Research Center SCK•CEN 100 MW
Budapest Research Reactor [7] Hungary Budapest Hungarian Academy of Sciences Centre for Energy Research 5 MW [7] 1959 [7]
Budapest University of Technology Training Reactor [8] Hungary Budapest Budapest University of Technology and Economics 100 kW1969
ILL High-Flux Reactor France Grenoble Institut Laue-Langevin 63 MW [9]
RA-6 Argentina Bariloche Balseiro Institute / Bariloche Atomic Centre 1 MW [10] 1982 [10]
ZED-2 Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Chalk River Laboratories 200 W [11] 1960
McMaster Nuclear Reactor Canada Hamilton, Ontario McMaster University 5 MW1959
National Research Universal reactor Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Chalk River Laboratories 135 MW1957
Petten nuclear reactors Netherlands Petten Dutch Nuclear Research and consultancy Group, [12] EU Joint Research Centre 30 kW and 60MW1960
ORPHEE France Saclay Laboratoire Léon Brillouin 14 MW1980
FRM II Germany Garching Technical University of Munich 20 MW2004
HOR Netherlands Delft Reactor Institute Delft, Delft University of Technology 2 MW
Mainz Germany Mainz Universität Mainz, Institut für Kernchemie 100 kW [13]
TRIGA Mark II [14] Austria Vienna Technical University Vienna, TU Wien, Atominstitut 250 kW1962 [14]
IRT-2000 Bulgaria Sofia Bulgarian Academy of Sciences research site2 MW
OPAL Australia Lucas Heights, New South Wales Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation 20 MW2006
IEA-R1 Brazil São Paulo Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares 3.5 MW1957
IRT-2000 [15] Russia Moscow Moscow Engineering Physics Institute 2.5 MW [15] 1967 [15]
SAFARI-1 South Africa Pelindaba South African Nuclear Energy Corporation 20 MW [16] 1965 [16]
High-Flux Advanced Neutron Application Reactor South Korea Daejeon Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute 30 MW [17] 1995 [17]
LVR-15 Czech Republic Řež Nuclear Research Institute10 MW [18] 1995 [18]
North Carolina State University Reactor Program United States Raleigh, North Carolina North Carolina State University 1 MW [19] 1953 [19]
High Flux Isotope Reactor United States Oak Ridge, Tennessee Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Advanced Test Reactor United States Idaho Idaho National Laboratory 250 MW [20]
University of Missouri Research Reactor United States Columbia, Missouri University of Missouri 10 MW1966
Maryland University Training Reactor United States College Park, Maryland University of Maryland 250 kW [21] 1970 [21]
Washington State University Reactor United States Pullman, Washington Washington State University 1 MW [22]
CROCUS Switzerland Lausanne École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne
Maria reactor Poland Świerk- Otwock National Centre for Nuclear Research30 MW1974
TRIGA Mark I United States Irvine, California University of California, Irvine
ITU TRIGA Mark-II Training and Research Reactor Turkey Istanbul Istanbul Technical University
ETRR-1 Egypt Inshas Nuclear Research Center2 MW1961
ETRR-2 Egypt Inshas Nuclear Research Center22 MW1997
Ghana Research Reactor-1 [23] Ghana Accra National Nuclear Research Institute of the Ghanan Atomic Energy Commission 30 kW

Decommissioned research reactors:

Reactor NameCountryCityInstitutionPower LevelOperation DateClosure DateDecommissioned
ASTRA Austria Seibersdorf Austrian Institute of Technology 10 MW19601999
BER II Germany Berlin Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin 10 MW19732019 [24]
CONSORT United Kingdom Ascot, Berkshire Imperial College 100 kW1965 [25] 2012 [26]
JASON reactor United Kingdom Greenwich Royal Naval College 10 kW19621996
MOATA Australia Lucas Heights Australian Atomic Energy Commission 100 kW19611995
High Flux Australian Reactor Australia Lucas Heights Australian Atomic Energy Commission19582007
HTGR (Pin-in-Block Design) United Kingdom Winfrith, Dorset International Atomic Energy Agency 20MWt19641976July 2005 [27]
DIDO United Kingdom Harwell, Oxfordshire Atomic Energy Research Establishment 1990
Nuclear Power Demonstration Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Rolphton plant20 MW19611987
NRX Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Chalk River Laboratories 19521992
PLUTO reactor United Kingdom Harwell, Oxfordshire Atomic Energy Research Establishment 26 MW19571990
Pool Test Reactor Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Chalk River Laboratories 10 kW19571990
WR-1 Canada Pinawa, Manitoba AECL's Whiteshell Laboratories 60 MW19651985
ZEEP Canada Deep River, Ontario AECL's Chalk River Laboratories 19451973
More Hall Annex United States Seattle University of Washington 100 kW19611988
Ewa reactor Poland Świerk- Otwock POLATOM Institute of Nuclear Energy10 MW19581995
FiR 1 Finland Espoo Helsinki University of Technology,
later VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland 		250 kW [28] 1962 [28] 2015 [29]
RV-1 Venezuela Caracas Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research 3 MW19601994
Salaspils Research Reactor Latvia Salaspils Latvian Academy of Sciences 2 kW19611998

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear reactor</span> Device for controlled nuclear reactions

A nuclear reactor is a device used to initiate and control a fission nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. When a fissile nucleus like uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it splits into lighter nuclei, releasing energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons, which can induce further fission in a self-sustaining chain reaction. The process is carefully controlled using control rods and neutron moderators to regulate the number of neutrons that continue the reaction, ensuring the reactor operates safely. The efficiency of energy conversion in nuclear reactors is significantly higher compared to conventional fossil fuel plants; a kilo of uranium-235 can release millions of times more energy than a kilo of coal.

Enriched uranium is a type of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes: uranium-238, uranium-235, and uranium-234. 235U is the only nuclide existing in nature that is fissile with thermal neutrons.

Mixed oxide fuel, commonly referred to as MOX fuel, is nuclear fuel that contains more than one oxide of fissile material, usually consisting of plutonium blended with natural uranium, reprocessed uranium, or depleted uranium. MOX fuel is an alternative to the low-enriched uranium fuel used in the light-water reactors that predominate nuclear power generation.

Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) is a Canadian Crown corporation and the largest nuclear science and technology laboratory in Canada. AECL developed the CANDU reactor technology starting in the 1950s, and in October 2011 licensed this technology to Candu Energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High Flux Australian Reactor</span> Australias first nuclear reactor

The High Flux Australian Reactor (HIFAR) was Australia's first nuclear research reactor. It was built at the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC) research establishment at Lucas Heights, Sydney, New South Wales. The reactor was in operation between 1958 and 2007, when it was decommissioned and replaced with the multi-purpose Open-pool Australian lightwater reactor (OPAL), also in Lucas Heights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TRIGA</span> Class of nuclear reactor used for education and research

TRIGA is a class of nuclear research reactor designed and manufactured by General Atomics. The design team for TRIGA, which included Edward Teller, was led by the physicist Freeman Dyson.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Petten nuclear reactor</span> Research reactor in Petten, Netherlands

The Petten High Flux Reactor (HFR) is a nuclear research reactor located in Petten, Netherlands. The HFR is on the premises of the Petten research centre and it is a high flux reactor. It is owned by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and managed by the Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group (NRG). The HFR’s original purpose was to provide experience and irradiation capabilities for the nascent Dutch nuclear power program. Construction began in 1958, and the reactor reached criticality on the 9th of November, 1961.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear fuel</span> Material fuelling nuclear reactors

Nuclear fuel is material used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission. Nuclear fuel has the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources. The processes involved in mining, refining, purifying, using, and disposing of nuclear fuel are collectively known as the nuclear fuel cycle.

The National Research Universal (NRU) reactor was a 135 MW nuclear research reactor built in the Chalk River Laboratories, Ontario, one of Canada’s national science facilities. It was a multipurpose science facility that served three main roles. It generated radionuclides used to treat or diagnose over 20 million people in 80 countries every year. It was the neutron source for the NRC Canadian Neutron Beam Centre: a materials research centre that grew from the Nobel Prize-winning work of Bertram Brockhouse. It was the test bed for Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to develop fuels and materials for the CANDU reactor. At the time of its retirement on March 31, 2018, it was the world's oldest operating nuclear reactor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SLOWPOKE reactor</span> Family of nuclear research reactors

The SLOWPOKE is a family of low-energy, tank-in-pool type nuclear research reactors designed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) beginning in the late 1960s. John W. Hilborn is the scientist most closely associated with their design. They are beryllium-reflected with a very low critical mass, but provide neutron fluxes higher than available from a small particle accelerator or other radioactive sources.

The Chinese built Miniature Neutron Source reactor (MNSR) is a small and compact research reactor modeled on the Canadian HEU SLOWPOKE-2 design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swimming pool reactor</span> Type of nuclear reactor

A swimming pool reactor, also called an open pool reactor, is a type of nuclear reactor that has a core immersed in an open pool usually of water.

The Whiteshell Reactor No. 1, or WR-1, was a Canadian research reactor located at AECL's Whiteshell Laboratories (WNRL) in Manitoba. Originally known as Organic-Cooled Deuterium-Reactor Experiment (OCDRE), it was built to test the concept of a CANDU-type reactor that replaced the heavy water coolant with an oil substance. This had a number of potential advantages in terms of cost and efficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maria reactor</span>

The Maria reactor is Poland's second nuclear research reactor and is the only one still in use. It is located at Narodowe Centrum Badań Jądrowych - "NCBJ" at Świerk-Otwock, near Warsaw and named in honor of Maria Skłodowska-Curie. It is the only reactor of Polish design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor</span> Pair of research nuclear reactors in Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan

The Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor or (PARR) are two nuclear research reactors and two other experimental neutron sources located in the PINSTECH Laboratory, Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Washington State University Reactor</span> Nuclear research reactor in Washington State University

The Washington State University Reactor (WSUR) is housed in the Dodgen Research Facility, and was completed in 1961. The (then) Washington State College Reactor was the brainchild of Harold W. Dodgen, a former researcher on the Manhattan Project where he earned his PhD from 1943 to 1946. He secured funding for the ambitious 'Reactor Project' from the National Science Foundation, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the College administration totaling $479,000. Dodgen's basis for constructing a reactor was that the College was primely located as a training facility for the Hanford site, as well as Idaho National Laboratory because there was no other research reactor in the West at that time. After completing the extensive application and design process with the help of contractors from General Electric they broke ground in August 1957 and the first criticality was achieved on March 7, 1961 at a power level of 1W. They gradually increased power over the next year to achieve their maximum licensed operating power of 100 kW.

A pressurized heavy-water reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear reactor that uses heavy water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and neutron moderator. PHWRs frequently use natural uranium as fuel, but sometimes also use very low enriched uranium. The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure to avoid boiling, allowing it to reach higher temperature (mostly) without forming steam bubbles, exactly as for a pressurized water reactor (PWR). While heavy water is very expensive to isolate from ordinary water (often referred to as light water in contrast to heavy water), its low absorption of neutrons greatly increases the neutron economy of the reactor, avoiding the need for enriched fuel. The high cost of the heavy water is offset by the lowered cost of using natural uranium and/or alternative fuel cycles. As of the beginning of 2001, 31 PHWRs were in operation, having a total capacity of 16.5 GW(e), representing roughly 7.76% by number and 4.7% by generating capacity of all current operating reactors.

ETRR-2 or ET-RR-2, or is the second nuclear reactor in Egypt supplied by the Argentine company Investigacion Aplicada (INVAP) in 1992. The reactor is owned and operated by Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA) at the Nuclear Research Center in Inshas, 60 kilometres (37 mi) northeast of Cairo.

Radioisotopes Production Facility (RPF), is a facility for the production of radioisotopes from irradiation of Low enriched uranium (LEU) in the Egyptian Second Research Reactor (ETRR-2) Complex. The RPF was supplied by the Argentine company Investigacion Aplicada (INVAP) and was commissioned during October and November 2011. The produced radioisotopes are used in medicine, industry and research activities for domestic market.

The Ghana Research Reactor-1 (GHARR-1) is a nuclear research reactor located in Accra, Ghana and is the only nuclear reactor in the country. It is operated by the National Nuclear Research Institute, a sub-division of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission. The reactor is a commercial version of the Chinese Miniature Neutron Source Reactor (MNSR) design. The reactor had its first criticality on December 17, 1994.

References

  1. ↑ Alrwashdeh, Mohammad, and Saeed A. Alameri. "Reactor Monte Carlo (RMC) model validation and verification in compare with MCNP for plate-type reactor." AIP Advances 9, no. 7 (2019): 075112. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5115807
  2. ↑ "CRP on Conversion of Miniature Neutron Source Research Reactors (MNSR) to Low Enriched Uranium (LEU)". Nuclear Fuel Cycle & Waste Technology. International Atomic Energy Agency. 13 January 2014. Archived from the original on Jun 12, 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  3. ↑ "Reduced Enrichment for Research and Test Reactors". National Nuclear Security Administration. Archived from the original on 29 October 2004.
  4. ↑ "U.S. Foreign Research Reactor Spent Nuclear Fuel Acceptance". National Nuclear Security Administration. Archived from the original on 22 September 2006.
  5. ↑ Cho, Adrian (28 January 2016). "Ridding research reactors of highly enriched uranium to take decades longer than projected". Science. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  6. ↑ "IAEA highlights work to convert research reactors". World Nuclear News. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  7. 1 2 3 "Budapest Research Reactor | Budapest Neutron Centre ...for research, science and innovation!". www.bnc.hu. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  8. ↑ "Institute for Nuclear Technology". reak.bme.hu. Retrieved 2019-09-11.
  9. ↑ "Nuclear Reactors". pd.chem.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  10. 1 2 "RA-6 de Argentina" (in European Spanish). Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  11. ↑ "Research reactors - Canadian Nuclear Association". Canadian Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  12. ↑ "High Flux Reactor - European Commission". ec.europa.eu. 13 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  13. ↑ Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität. "Reactor". www.kernchemie.uni-mainz.de (in German). Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  14. 1 2 "ATI : Reactor". ati.tuwien.ac.at. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  15. 1 2 3 "The reactor | National Research Nuclear University MEPhI". eng.mephi.ru. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  16. 1 2 "SAFARI-1". www.necsa.co.za. Archived from the original on 2018-01-31. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  17. 1 2 "High-Flux Advanced Neutron Application Reactor (HANARO) | Facilities | NTI". www.nti.org. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  18. 1 2 "Research Reactor LVR-15 | Centrum výzkumu Řež". cvrez.cz. Archived from the original on 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  19. 1 2 "History - Nuclear Reactor Program". Nuclear Reactor Program. Retrieved 2018-07-17.
  20. ↑ "ATR Factsheet" (PDF). Idaho National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-03. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  21. 1 2 "Maryland University Training Reactor (MUTR) | 250 kW TRIGA Reactor | University of Maryland Radiation Facilities". radiation.umd.edu/. Retrieved 2018-06-11.
  22. ↑ "Nuclear Science Center Washington State University". nsc.wsu.edu. Retrieved 2019-08-06.
  23. ↑ "Research Reactor Database - GHARR-1". International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved February 15, 2018.
  24. ↑ "Ende der Neutronen-Ära". pro-physik.de (in German). Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  25. ↑ "CONSORT Reactor Decommissioning: From fission to fuel gone". imperial.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  26. ↑ "UK research reactor fully decommissioned". world-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  27. ↑ "Winfrith's DRAGON loses its fire". www.nda.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  28. 1 2 Karlsen, Wade; Vilkamo, Olli (2016-12-14). "Finland's old nuclear research reactor to be decommissioned – New Centre for Nuclear Safety under construction". VTT Impulse. Retrieved 2018-02-22.
  29. ↑ "Research Reactor Database". International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2018-02-22.
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