Splendid fairywren

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Splendid fairywren
Splendid Fairywren 8352.jpg
A male splendid fairywren in New South Wales, Australia
Splendid Fairywren 8213.jpg
Female
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Maluridae
Genus: Malurus
Species:
M. splendens
Binomial name
Malurus splendens
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1832)
Malurus splendens IUCN 2016.svg
Splendid fairywren range
Synonyms
  • Saxicola splendens
  • Malurus pectoralis

The splendid fairywren (Malurus splendens) is a passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is also known simply as the splendid wren or more colloquially in Western Australia as the blue wren. The splendid fairywren is found across much of the Australian continent from central-western New South Wales and southwestern Queensland over to coastal Western Australia. It inhabits predominantly arid and semi-arid regions. Exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism, the male in breeding plumage is a small, long-tailed bird of predominantly bright blue and black colouration. Non-breeding males, females and juveniles are predominantly grey-brown in colour; this gave the early impression that males were polygamous as all dull-coloured birds were taken for females. It comprises several similar all-blue and black subspecies that were originally considered separate species.

Contents

Like other fairywrens, the splendid fairywren is notable for several peculiar behavioural characteristics; the birds are socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous, meaning that although they form pairs between one male and one female, each partner will mate with other individuals and even assist in raising the young from such trysts. [2] Male wrens pluck pink or purple petals and display them to females as part of a courtship display. [3]

The habitat of the splendid fairywren ranges from forest to dry scrub, generally with ample vegetation for shelter. Unlike the eastern superb fairywren, it has not adapted well to human occupation of the landscape and has disappeared from some urbanised areas. The splendid fairywren mainly eats insects and supplements its diet with seeds.

Taxonomy and systematics

The splendid fairywren is one of eleven species of the genus Malurus , commonly known as fairywrens, found in Australia and lowland New Guinea. [4] Within the genus it is most closely related to the superb fairywren. These two "blue wrens" are closely related to the purple-crowned fairywren of north-western Australia. [5]

Specimens were initially collected at King George Sound, and the splendid fairywren then described as Saxicola splendens by the French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard in 1830, [6] three years before John Gould gave it the scientific name of Malurus pectoralis and vernacular name of banded superb-warbler. [7] Though he correctly placed it in the genus Malurus, the specific name of the former authors took priority. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin splendens, which means "shining". [8] Like other fairywrens, the splendid fairywren is unrelated to the true wren. It was first classified as a member of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae by Richard Bowdler Sharpe, [9] [10] though it was later placed in the warbler family Sylviidae by the same author, [11] before being placed in the newly recognised family Maluridae in 1975. [12] More recently, DNA analysis has shown the family Maluridae to be related to the family Meliphagidae (the honeyeaters), and the family Pardalotidae within a large superfamily, Meliphagoidea. [13] [14]

The splendid fairywren is also alternatively named the splendid blue wren.

Subspecies

Male, ssp. emmettorum Cunnamulla, SW Queensland Splendid fairywren male cunnamulla.JPG
Male, ssp. emmettorum
Cunnamulla, SW Queensland
Female, ssp. emmettorum Cunnamulla, SW Queensland Splendid Fairywren female cunnamulla.JPG
Female, ssp. emmettorum
Cunnamulla, SW Queensland

Initially, three of the subspecies were considered separate species as they were each originally described far from their borders with the others. However, as the interior of Australia was explored, it became apparent there were areas of hybridisation where subspecies overlapped. Thus in 1975, they were then reclassified as subspecies of the splendid fairywren. There are four subspecies currently recognized: [15]

Evolutionary history

In his 1982 monograph, ornithologist Richard Schodde proposed a southern origin for the common ancestor of the superb and splendid fairywrens. At some time in the past it was split into southwestern (splendid) and southeastern (superb) enclaves. As the southwest was drier than the southeast, once conditions were more favourable, the splendid forms were more able to spread into inland areas. These split into at least three enclaves which subsequently evolved in isolation in the following drier glacial periods until the current more favourable climate saw them expand once again and interbreed where they overlap. This suggests the original split was only very recent as the forms had insufficient time to speciate. Further molecular studies may result in this hypothesis being modified. [20] A 2017 genetic study using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found the ancestors of the superb and splendid fairywrens diverged from each other around 4 million years ago, and their common ancestor diverged around 7 million years ago from a lineage that gave rise to the white-shouldered, white-winged and red-backed fairywrens. [21]

Description

Subspecies splendens female, showing chestnut bill and bluish tail Blue wren gnangarra.jpg
Subspecies splendens female,
showing chestnut bill and bluish tail

The splendid fairywren is a small, long-tailed bird 14 cm (5.5 in) long. Exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism, the breeding male is distinctive with a bright blue forehead and ear coverts, a violet throat and deeper rich blue back wings, chest and tail with a black bill, eye band and chest band. The blue breeding plumage of the male is often referred to as nuptial plumage. The non-breeding male is brown with blue in the wings and a bluish tail. The female resembles the non-breeding male but has a chestnut bill and eye-patch. [22] Immature males will moult into breeding plumage the first breeding season after hatching, though this may be incomplete with residual brownish plumage and may take another year or two to perfect. [23] Both sexes moult in autumn after breeding, with males assuming an eclipse non-breeding plumage. They will moult again into nuptial plumage in winter or spring. [24] Some older males have remained blue all year, moulting directly from one year's nuptial plumage to the next. [25] Breeding males' blue plumage, particularly the ear-coverts, is highly iridescent due to the flattened and twisted surface of the barbules. [26] The blue plumage also reflects ultraviolet light strongly, and so may be even more prominent to other fairywrens, whose colour vision extends into this part of the spectrum. [27] The call is described as a gushing reel; [22] this is harsher and louder than other fairywrens and varies from individual to individual. [28] A soft single trrt serves as a contact call within a foraging group, while the alarm call is a tsit. Cuckoos and other intruders may be greeted with a threat posture and churring threat. [29] Females emit a purr while brooding. [30]

Distribution and habitat

The splendid fairywren is widely distributed in the arid and semi-arid zones of Australia. Habitat is typically dry and shrubby; mulga and mallee in drier parts of the country and forested areas in the southwest. [20] The western subspecies splendens and eastern black-backed fairywren (subspecies melanotus) are largely sedentary, although the turquoise fairywren (subspecies musgravei) is thought to be partially nomadic. [20] Unlike the eastern superb fairywren, the splendid fairywren has not adapted well to human occupation of the landscape and has disappeared from some urbanised areas. [31] Forestry plantations of pine ( Pinus spp.) and eucalypts are also unsuitable as they lack undergrowth. [32]

Behaviour and ecology

Subspecies melanotus with face fan display, Lake Cargelligo Splendid Fairy Wren - Lake cargelligo - Spt 05 089.JPG
Subspecies melanotus with face fan display, Lake Cargelligo

Like all fairywrens, the splendid fairywren is an active and restless feeder, particularly on open ground near shelter, but also through the lower foliage. Movement is a series of jaunty hops and bounces, [33] with its balance assisted by a proportionally large tail, which is usually held upright and rarely still. The short, rounded wings provide good initial lift and are useful for short flights, though not for extended jaunts. [34] However, splendid fairywrens are stronger fliers than most other fairywrens. [35] During spring and summer, birds are active in bursts through the day and accompany their foraging with song. Insects are numerous and easy to catch, which allows the birds to rest between forays. The group often shelters and rests together during the heat of the day. Food is harder to find during winter and they are required to spend the day foraging continuously. [36]

Groups of two to eight splendid fairywrens remain in their territory and defend it year-round. [25] Territories average 4.4 ha (11 acres) in woodland-heath areas; [37] size decreases with increasing density of vegetation and increases with the number of males in the group. [35] The group consists of a socially monogamous pair with one or more male or female helper birds that were hatched in the territory, though they may not necessarily be the offspring of the main pair. Splendid fairywrens are sexually promiscuous, each partner mating with other individuals and even assisting in raising the young from such trysts. Over a third of offspring are the result of an 'extramarital' mating. [2] Helper birds assist in defending the territory and feeding and rearing the young. [38] Birds in a group roost side-by-side in dense cover as well as engaging in mutual preening. [35]

Major nest predators include Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen), butcherbirds (Cracticus spp.), laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), currawongs (Strepera spp.), crows and ravens (Corvus spp.), shrike-thrushes (Colluricincla spp.) as well as introduced mammals such as the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), cat (Felis catus) and black rat (Rattus rattus). [39] Like other species of fairywrens, splendid fairywrens may use a 'rodent-run' display to distract predators from nests with young birds. While doing this, the head, neck and tail of the bird are lowered, the wings are held out and the feathers are fluffed as the bird runs rapidly and voices a continuous alarm call. [40]

Courtship

Several courtship displays by splendid fairywren males have been recorded; the 'sea horse flight,' so named for the similarity of movements to those by a seahorse, is an exaggerated undulating flight where the male, with his neck extended and his head feathers erect, flies and tilts his body from horizontal to vertical and by rapidly beating wings is able to descend slowly and spring upwards after alighting on the ground. [41] The 'face fan' display may be seen as a part of aggressive or sexual display behaviours; it involves the flaring of the blue ear tufts by erecting the feathers. [42]

Turquoise fairywren (subsp. callainus) with purplish petal - Gawler Ranges, South Australia MalsplendS532-1.jpg
Turquoise fairywren (subsp. callainus) with purplish petal – Gawler Ranges, South Australia

Another interesting habit of males of this and other fairywren species during the reproductive season is to pluck petals (in this species, predominantly pink and purple ones which contrast with their plumage) and show them to female fairywrens. [3] Petals often form part of a courtship display and are presented to a female in the male fairywren's own or another territory. Outside the breeding season males may sometimes still show petals to females in other territories, presumably to promote themselves. [43] It is notable that fairywrens are socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous: pairs will bond for life, [44] but regularly mate with other individuals; a proportion of young will have been fathered by males from outside the group. Young are often raised not by the pair alone, but with other males who also mated with the pair's female assisting. Thus, petal-carrying might be a behaviour that strengthens the pair-bond. Petal carrying might also be a way for extra males to gain matings with the female. In either case, the data does not strongly link petal-carrying and presenting to a copulation soon thereafter.

Researchers at Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago published a paper in Behavioral Ecology in 2010 showing that male splendid fairywrens sing display-like vocalizations (Type II song) in response to predator calls. The trills "hitchhike" on the predator's vocalization and the female splendid fairywrens, which have become more alert due to the predator calls, also respond more strongly to this type II song than when it's given without a predator call preceding it. [45]

Breeding

Breeding occurs from late August through to January, though heavy rain in August may delay this. The nest is built by the female; it is a round or domed structure made of loosely woven grasses and spider webs, with an entrance in one side close to the ground and well-concealed in thick and often thorny vegetation, such as Acacia pulchella or a species of Hakea . [46] One or two broods may be laid during the breeding season. A clutch of two to four dull white eggs with reddish-brown splotches and spots, measuring 12 mm × 16 mm (0.47 in × 0.63 in), are laid. [47] Incubation takes about two weeks. [48] The female incubates the eggs for 14 or 15 days; after hatching, nestlings are fed and their fecal sacs removed by all group members for 10–13 days, by which time they are fledged. [49] Young birds remain in the family group as helpers for a year or more before moving to another group, usually an adjacent one, or assuming a dominant position in the original group. [50] In this role they feed and care for subsequent broods. [46]

Splendid fairywrens also commonly play host to the brood parasite Horsfield's bronze cuckoo (Chalcites basalis), [51] with the shining bronze cuckoo (Chalcites lucidus) also recorded. [52]

Feeding

The splendid fairywren is predominantly insectivorous; its diet includes a wide range of small creatures, mostly arthropods such as ants, grasshoppers, crickets, spiders and bugs. This is supplemented by small quantities of seeds, flowers, and fruit. [53] They mostly forage on the ground or in shrubs that are less than two metres above the ground; this has been termed 'hop-searching'. Unusually for fairywrens, they may also occasionally forage in the canopy of flowering gums. [35] Birds tend to stick fairly close to cover and forage in groups as this foraging practice does render them vulnerable to a range of predators. Food can be scarce in winter and ants are an important 'last resort' option, constituting a much higher proportion of the diet. [54] Adult fairywrens feed their young a different diet, conveying larger items such as caterpillars and grasshoppers to nestlings. [55]

Cultural depictions

The bird was intended to be illustrated on an Australia Post 45c pre-stamped envelope released on 12 August 1999; [56] however, a superb fairywren was mistakenly illustrated instead. [57]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australasian wren</span> Family of birds

The Australasian wrens are a family, Maluridae, of small, insectivorous passerine birds endemic to Australia and New Guinea. While commonly known as wrens, they are unrelated to the true wrens. The family comprises 32 species in six genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superb fairywren</span> Species of bird

The superb fairywren is a passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae, and is common and familiar across south-eastern Australia. It is a sedentary and territorial species, also exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism; the male in breeding plumage has a striking bright blue forehead, ear coverts, mantle, and tail, with a black mask and black or dark blue throat. Non-breeding males, females and juveniles are predominantly grey-brown in colour; this gave the early impression that males were polygamous, as all dull-coloured birds were taken for females. Six subspecies groups are recognized: three larger and darker forms from Tasmania, Flinders and King Island respectively, and three smaller and paler forms from mainland Australia and Kangaroo Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variegated fairywren</span> Species of bird

The variegated fairywren is a fairywren that lives in eastern Australia. As a species that exhibits sexual dimorphism, the brightly coloured breeding male has chestnut shoulders and azure crown and ear coverts, while non-breeding males, females and juveniles have predominantly grey-brown plumage, although females of two subspecies have mainly blue-grey plumage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky grasswren</span> Species of bird

The dusky grasswren is a species of small passerine bird in the family Maluridae. The species is endemic to Australia but is limited to inland areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia and South Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange-crowned fairywren</span> Species of bird

The orange-crowned fairywren is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is monotypic within the genus Clytomyias. It is found on New Guinea in its natural habitat of subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-shouldered fairywren</span> Species of bird

The white-shouldered fairywren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is found in New Guinea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lovely fairywren</span> Species of bird

The lovely fairywren, or lovely wren, is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to northeastern Australia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purple-crowned fairywren</span> Species of songbird endemic to northern Australia in the family Maluridae

The purple-crowned fairywren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is the largest of the eleven species in the genus Malurus and is endemic to northern Australia. The species name is derived from the Latin word cǒrōna meaning "crown", owing to the distinctive purple circle of crown feathers sported by breeding males. Genetic evidence shows that the purple-crowned fairywren is most closely related to the superb fairywren and splendid fairywren. Purple-crowned fairywrens can be distinguished from other fairywrens in northern Australia by the presence of cheek patches and the deep blue colour of their perky tails.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor fairywren</span> Species of bird

The emperor fairywren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is found in New Guinea in its natural habitat of subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is the largest species of fairywren. It is highly sexually dimorphic. Males have a blue and black plumage, with the females having blue and black plumage only on their heads, with the rest of the body being coloured a rusty brown and having a black tail tipped with white. There are 3 recognized subspecies of the emperor fairywren, one from north and northwestern New Guinea, one from Biak Island, and one from south New Guinea and the Aru Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-winged fairywren</span> Passerine bird in the Australasian wren family

The red-winged fairywren is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is non-migratory and endemic to the southwestern corner of Western Australia. Exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism, the male adopts a brilliantly coloured breeding plumage, with an iridescent silvery-blue crown, ear coverts and upper back, red shoulders, contrasting with a black throat, grey-brown tail and wings and pale underparts. Non-breeding males, females and juveniles have predominantly grey-brown plumage, though males may bear isolated blue and black feathers. No separate subspecies are recognised. Similar in appearance and closely related to the variegated fairywren and the blue-breasted fairywren, it is regarded as a separate species as no intermediate forms have been recorded where their ranges overlap. Though the red-winged fairywren is locally common, there is evidence of a decline in numbers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broad-billed fairywren</span> Species of bird

The broad-billed fairywren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is found in northern and north-western New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-winged fairywren</span> Australian species of bird

The white-winged fairywren is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It lives in the drier parts of Central Australia; from central Queensland and South Australia across to Western Australia. Like other fairywrens, this species displays marked sexual dimorphism and one or more males of a social group grow brightly coloured plumage during the breeding season. The female is sandy-brown with light-blue tail feathers; it is smaller than the male, which, in breeding plumage, has a bright-blue body, black bill, and white wings. Younger sexually mature males are almost indistinguishable from females and are often the breeding males. In spring and summer, a troop of white-winged fairywrens has a brightly coloured older male accompanied by small, inconspicuous brown birds, many of which are also male. Three subspecies are recognised. Apart from the mainland subspecies, one is found on Dirk Hartog Island, and another on Barrow Island off the coast of Western Australia. Males from these islands have black rather than blue breeding plumage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-backed fairywren</span> Passerine bird in the Australasian wren family

The red-backed fairywren is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to Australia and can be found near rivers and coastal areas along the northern and eastern coastlines from the Kimberley in the northwest to the Hunter Region in New South Wales. The male adopts a striking breeding plumage, with a black head, upperparts and tail, and a brightly coloured red back and brown wings. The female has brownish upperparts and paler underparts. The male in eclipse plumage and the juvenile resemble the female. Some males remain in non-breeding plumage while breeding. Two subspecies are recognised; the nominate M. m.melanocephalus of eastern Australia has a longer tail and orange back, and the short-tailed M. m. cruentatus from northern Australia has a redder back.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue-breasted fairywren</span> Species of bird

The blue-breasted fairywren, or blue-breasted wren, is a species of passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is non-migratory and endemic to southern Western Australia and the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. Exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism, the male adopts a brilliantly coloured breeding plumage, with a bright blue crown, ear coverts and upper back, red shoulders, contrasting with a dark blue throat, grey-brown tail and wings and pale underparts. Non-breeding males, females and juveniles have predominantly grey-brown plumage. No separate subspecies are recognised.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wallace's fairywren</span> Species of bird

Wallace's fairywren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is the only species within the genus Sipodotus. It is found in New Guinea and the Aru Islands, where its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern emu-wren</span> Species of bird

The southern emu-wren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to Australia. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, and Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, and swamplands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emu-wren</span> Genus of birds

The emu-wrens (Stipiturus) are a genus of passerine birds in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. They are found only in Australia, where they inhabit scrub, heathland and grassland. They are small birds, 12–19 cm long with the tail accounting for over half of their length. The tail has only six feathers which are loose and coarse in structure, rather like the feathers of the emu. Three species are recognised, of which the mallee emu-wren is endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mallee emu-wren</span> Species of bird

The mallee emu-wren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rufous-crowned emu-wren</span> Species of bird

The rufous-crowned emu-wren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purple-backed fairywren</span> Species of bird

The purple-backed fairywren is a fairywren that is native to Australia. Described by Alfred John North in 1901, it has four recognised subspecies. In a species that exhibits sexual dimorphism, the brightly coloured breeding male has chestnut shoulders and azure crown and ear coverts, while non-breeding males, females and juveniles have predominantly grey-brown plumage, although females of two subspecies have mainly blue-grey plumage. Distributed over much of the Australian continent, the purple-backed fairywren is found in scrubland with plenty of vegetation providing dense cover.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2016). "Malurus splendens". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22703740A93934738. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22703740A93934738.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 Webster MS, Tarvin KA, Tuttle EM, Pruett-Jones S (2004). "Reproductive promiscuity in the splendid fairywren: effects of group size and auxiliary reproduction". Behavioral Ecology. 15 (6): 907–915. doi:10.1093/beheco/arh093.
  3. 1 2 Rowley & Russell 1997 , pp. 74–75.
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  18. ↑ transcript – Kerry O'Brien (2000-05-19). "Farmer's biology work recognised by science community". ABC – 7:30 Report. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2008-04-20. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
  19. ↑ Schodde, R. and Mason, I.J. (1999). The Directory of Australian Birds: Passerines. A Taxonomic and Zoogeographic Atlas of the Biodiversity of Birds in Australia and its Territories. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing x 851 pp. [94].
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  22. 1 2 Simpson K, Day N, Trusler P (1993). Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Ringwood, Victoria: Viking O'Neil. p. 392. ISBN   978-0-670-90478-5.
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  24. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 149.
  25. 1 2 Rowley I (1981). "The communal way of life in the Splendid Fairy-wren Malurus splendens". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 55 (3): 228–67. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1981.tb01271.x.
  26. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 44.
  27. ↑ Bennett AT, Cuthill IC (June 1994). "Ultraviolet vision in birds: what is its function?". Vision Research. 34 (11): 1471–1478. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)90149-X. PMID   8023459. S2CID   38220252.
  28. ↑ Payne RB, Payne LL, Rowley I (1988). "Kin and social relationships in splendid fairy-wrens: recognition by song in a cooperative bird". Animal Behaviour. 36 (5): 1341–51. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(88)80203-3. S2CID   53160373.
  29. ↑ Payne RB, Payne LL, Rowley I (1985). "Splendid wren Malurus splendens response to cuckoos: an experimental test of social organisation in a communal bird". Behaviour. 94 (1–2): 108–127. doi:10.1163/156853985X00299.
  30. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 151.
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  32. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 134.
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  40. ↑ Wareham, J (1954). "The behaviour of the Splendid Blue Wren". Emu. 54 (2): 135–40. Bibcode:1954EmuAO..54..135W. doi:10.1071/MU954135.
  41. ↑ Loaring WH (1948). "Splendid Wren with flower petal". Emu . 48 (2): 163–64. Bibcode:1948EmuAO..48..163L. doi:10.1071/MU948158f.
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  45. ↑ Greig, Emma I.; Pruett-Jones, Stephen (2010). "Danger may enhance communication: predator calls alert females to male displays". Behavioral Ecology. 21 (6): 1360–1366. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arq155 .
  46. 1 2 Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 154.
  47. ↑ Beruldsen, G (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Qld: self. p. 280. ISBN   978-0-646-42798-0.
  48. ↑ Van Bael S, Pruett-Jones S (2000). "Breeding Biology and Social Behaviour of the Eastern Race of the Splendid Fairy-wren Malurus splendens melanotus". Emu. 100 (2): 95–108. Bibcode:2000EmuAO.100...95V. doi:10.1071/MU9831. S2CID   86387300.
  49. ↑ Rowley, Ian; Brooker, MG; Russell, EM (1991). "The breeding biology of the Splendid Fairy-wren Malurus splendens: the significance of multiple broods". Emu. 91 (4): 197–221. Bibcode:1991EmuAO..91..197R. doi:10.1071/MU9910197.
  50. ↑ Russell, EM; Rowley, Ian (1993). "Philopatry or dispersal: competition for territory vacancies in the splendid fairy-wren Malurus splendens". Animal Behaviour. 45 (3): 519–39. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1063. S2CID   53163691.
  51. ↑ Joseph L, Wilke T, Alpers D (April 2002). "Reconciling genetic expectations from host specificity with historical population dynamics in an avian brood parasite, Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo Chalcites basalis of Australia". Molecular Ecology. 11 (4): 829–837. Bibcode:2002MolEc..11..829J. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01481.x. PMID   11972768. S2CID   21512245.
  52. ↑ Brooker MG, Brooker LC (1989). "Cuckoo Hosts in Australia". Australian Zoological Reviews (2): 1–67.
  53. ↑ Barker RD, Vestkens WJ (1990). Food of Australian Birds: Vol. 2 – Passerines. CSIRO. p. 557. ISBN   978-0-643-05115-7.
  54. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , pp. 49–52.
  55. ↑ Rowley & Russell 1997 , p. 53.
  56. ↑ Australia Post Philatelic Group (August–September 1999). "Birds" (PDF). Stamp Bulletin (251): 7. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
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