Strobilurus tenacellus

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Strobilurus tenacellus
2012-04-22 Strobilurus tenacellus (Pers.) Singer 214245.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Physalacriaceae
Genus: Strobilurus
Species:
S. tenacellus
Binomial name
Strobilurus tenacellus
(Pers.) Singer (1962)
Synonyms [1]
  • Agaricus tenacellusPers. (1796) [2]
  • Collybia tenacella(Pers.) P.Kumm. (1871) [3]
  • Collybia esculenta var. tenacella(Pers.) P.Karst. (1879) [4]
  • Marasmius esculentus var. tenacellus(Pers.) P.Karst. (1889) [5]
  • Marasmius tenacellus(Pers.) J.Favre (1939)
  • Pseudohiatula tenacella(Pers.) Métrod (1952) [6]
  • Pseudohiatula esculenta subsp. tenacella(Pers.) Hongo (1959)

Strobilurus tenacellus, commonly known as the pinecone cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Physalacriaceae. It is found in Asia and Europe, where it grows on the fallen cones of pine and spruce trees. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) are small, with convex to flat, reddish to brownish caps up to 15 mm (0.6 in) in diameter, set atop thin cylindrical stems up to 4–7.5 cm (1.6–3.0 in) long with a rooting base. A characteristic microscopic feature of the mushroom is the sharp, thin-walled cystidia found on the stipe, gills, and cap. The mushrooms, sometimes described as edible, are too small to be of culinary interest. The fungus releases compounds called strobilurins that suppress the growth and development of other fungi. Derivatives of these compounds are used as an important class of agricultural fungicides.

Contents

Taxonomy

The species was first described as Agaricus tenacellus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his 1796 Observationes Mycologicae. [2] In its taxonomic history, it has been moved to the genera Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1803, Marasmius by Jules Favre in 1939, and Pseudohiatula by Georges Métrod in 1952. Rolf Singer transferred it to the newly circumscribed genus Strobilurus in 1962, giving it the name by which it is currently known. [7]

The specific epithet tenacellus is a diminutive form of the Latin word tenax, meaning "tough". [8] Its British Mycological Society-recommended common name is the "pinecone cap". [9] English botanist James Edward Smith called it the "dark fir-cone Agaric" in his 1836 work The English Flora. [10]

Description

The gills are notched and interspersed with several tiers of lamellulae. Strobilurus tenacellus 214247.jpg
The gills are notched and interspersed with several tiers of lamellulae.

The cap is initially convex before flattening out, sometimes retaining a small central papilla, and sometimes developing a central depression; the cap diameter reaches 5–15 mm (0.2–0.6 in). The smooth cap is hygrophanous (i.e., it changes colour as it loses or absorbs moisture), and has shallow radial grooves extending about halfway up the cap. Its colour is reddish to brownish, and is often paler in the center than the margin; when dry, the colour fades to greyish. The greyish-white gills have a free to deeply emarginate (notched) attachment to the cap. They are somewhat crowded together, numbering 20–25 gills with 1 to 7 tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe). The cylindrical stipe measures 4–7.5 cm (1.6–3.0 in) long by 0.5–2 mm thick, and has at its base a root-like pseudorrhiza that extends into the substrate. The upper stipe is yellowish brown, while lower it is dark orange-brown to reddish brown. The flesh has no odour and usually has a bitter taste. [11] While the fruit bodies are sometimes described as are edible, [12] [13] they are too small to be of culinary interest. [14]

The spore print is white. [15] Spores are roughly elliptical to tear-shaped, with dimensions of 5.0–7.5 by 2.4–4.0  μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, and measure 20–40 by 7–11 μm. Cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are thin walled, plentiful, spindle-shaped to somewhat flask-shaped with a sharp tip, and measure 30–70 by 3–10 μm. The pleurocystidia (on the gill face) are similar in shape and size to the cheilocystidia, although usually not quite as numerous. The cap cuticle is made of a hymeniderm of club-shaped to somewhat spherical cells measuring 8–25 by 7–20 μm, mixed with flask-shaped pileocystidia (cystidia on the cap) that are 20–45 by 5–11 μm. Hyphae lack clamp connections. [11]

Similar species

Strobilurus esculentus and S. stephanocystis are similar in appearance to S. tenacellus. S. esculentus mushrooms have thin, sharp cap margins and only fruit on fallen spruce cones. [16] S. stephanocystis has a yellow-brown to reddish-yellow cap that is not hygrophanous. [11] Baeospora myosura is another small agaric that grows on pine and spruce cones, but it fruits in autumn. [15]

Habitat and distribution

Strobilurus tenacellus is a saprobic wood-rotting fungus. It fruits singly or in small groups on fallen and often partially buried cones of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ), European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and sometimes spruce ( Picea ) in coniferous and mixed forests. [11] It is found in Europe [17] and Asia, where it has been recorded in Japan [17] and Jordan. [18] In Europe, the fungus usually fruits from March to June. [11] Its occurrence is occasional. [15]

Bioactive compounds

Azoxystrobin is a commercial fungicide developed from this mushroom Azoxystrobin colour.svg
Azoxystrobin is a commercial fungicide developed from this mushroom

Two cyathane-like diterpenoids, (12S)-11α,14α-epoxy-13α,14β,15-trihydroxycyath-3-ene and (12R)-11α,14α-epoxy-13α,14β,15-trihydroxycyath-3-ene, have been isolated and identified from the liquid culture of the fungus. These compounds inhibit the growth of certain tumor cells when grown in vitro . [19]

Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility, methanol-based extracts of Strobilurus tenacellus fruit bodies were shown in a 2000 study to have low antibacterial activity against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis , and low to moderate activity against the fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus . [20] The fungus produces the natural antibiotic strobilurin A, which was reported as a novel compound from this species in 1977; [21] other strobilurins have since been found in other basidiomycete wood-rotting fungi, [22] like Porcelain Mushroom for example. Strobilurin A is thought to be derived biosynthetically from the amino acid L-phenylalanine. In nature, the fungus secretes the chemical to prevent invasion by other fungi that challenge its nutrient source. It works by blocking electron transfer in the mitochondria, stopping respiration by binding to the ubihydroquinone oxidation center of the bc1 complex. This prevents the competing fungus from creating its own energy and inhibiting its growth at the earliest stages of the life cycle, the spore germination stage. The fungus is resistant to its own chemical because its ubihydroquinone has three amino acid residues that prevent the strobilurins from binding. [23] Because of their sensitivity to light, and high vapor pressures that causes them to rapidly disappear when applied to the surface of a leaf, chemically unmodified strobilurins are not generally useful as fungicides for agricultural use. [24] The strobilurin-derived compound azoxystrobin, first made commercially available in 1996, was designed to overcome these limitations. It is the world's biggest-selling fungicide. [25] Other commercial fungicides developed from the strobilurins include kresoxim-methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. [26] [27]

Related Research Articles

Strobilurins are a group of natural products and their synthetic analogs. A number of strobilurins are used in agriculture as fungicides. They are part of the larger group of QoIs, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.

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Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed, and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown en masse, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 micrometres.

<i>Neolentinus ponderosus</i> Species of fungus

Neolentinus ponderosus, commonly known as the giant sawgill, or ponderous lentinus, is a species of fungus in the family Gloeophyllaceae. Found in western North America, it was originally described in 1965 as a species of Lentinus by American mycologist Orson K. Miller.

<i>Atheniella adonis</i> Species of fungus

Atheniella adonis, which has the recommended name of scarlet bonnet in the UK, is a species of agaric in the family Cyphellaceae. Found in Asia, Europe, and North America, it produces small orangish to reddish mushrooms with caps up to 1.2 cm (0.5 in) in diameter and thin pinkish-white stems reaching 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The fungus typically grows in conifer woods and peat bogs, suggesting a preference for acidic environments. The appearance of several atypical fruitings on deciduous wood in the Netherlands in the late 1970s was attributed to increases in atmospheric pollution that raised the acidity of the wood substrate.

<i>Mycena cinerella</i> Species of fungus

Mycena cinerella, commonly known as the mealy bonnet, is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and the United States, where it grows in groups on fallen leaves and needles under pine and Douglas fir. The small grayish mushrooms have caps that are up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide atop stipes that are 5 cm (2.0 in) long and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) thick. Its gills are grayish-white and adnate, with a "tooth" that runs slightly down the stipe. The fungus has both two- and four-spored basidia. As its common name suggests, it smells mealy.

<i>Mycena inclinata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.

<i>Mycena leptocephala</i> Species of fungus

Mycena leptocephala, commonly known as the nitrous bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms have conical grayish caps that reach up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, and thin fragile stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. The gills are gray and distantly spaced. The spores are elliptical, typically measure 7–10 by 4–6 μm, and are white in deposit. When viewed under a light microscope, the gills have abundant spindle-shaped cystidia on the gill edges, but few on the gill faces. The mushroom is found in North America, Asia, and Europe where it grows singly or in groups on conifer needles, cones and sticks on the forest floor. It has a distinctive odor of bleach; the edibility is unknown. Similar species include Mycena alcalina, M. austera, and M. brevipes.

<i>Mycena sanguinolenta</i> Species of fungus

Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined.

<i>Cystodermella cinnabarina</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Psilocybe pelliculosa</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Mycena aurantiomarginata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae common in Europe and North America

Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.

<i>Collybia tuberosa</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Collybia cirrhata</i> Species of fungus

Collybia cirrhata is a species of fungus in the family Tricholomataceae of the order Agaricales. The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1786, but was not validly named until 1803. Found in Europe, Northern Eurasia, and North America, it is known from temperate, boreal, and alpine or arctic habitats. It is a saprobic species that grows in clusters on the decaying or blackened remains of other mushrooms. The fruit bodies are small, with whitish convex to flattened caps up to 11 mm in diameter, narrow white gills, and slender whitish stems 8–25 mm long and up to 2 mm (0.08 in) thick. C. cirrhata can be distinguished from the other two members of Collybia by the absence of a sclerotium at the base of the stem. The mushroom is of unknown edibility.

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<i>Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Volvariella surrecta</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Tubaria punicea</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Mycena purpureofusca</i> Species of fungus

Mycena purpureofusca, commonly known as the purple edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885, the species is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers, including cones. Fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped purple caps up to 2.5 cm (1 in) set atop slender stipes up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish-purple color of its gill edges. In the field, M. purpureofusca mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes.

<i>Stropharia caerulea</i> Species of fungus

Stropharia caerulea, commonly known as the blue roundhead, is a species of mushroom forming fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is a somewhat common species found in Europe and North America, where it grows as a saprophyte in meadows, roadsides, hedgerows, gardens, and woodchip mulch. S. caerulea was officially described to science in 1979, although it was known to be a distinct species for about two centuries before that. The scientific name Stropharia cyanea, as defined by Tuomikoski in 1953, and used by several later authors, is a synonym of S. caerulea.

<i>Psilocybe angulospora</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe angulospora is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The species was described from Taiwan in 2015 and is also present in New Zealand, where it is considered introduced. As a blueing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin.

References

  1. ↑ "Strobilurus tenacellus (Pers.) Singer 1962". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
  2. 1 2 Persoon CH (1796). Observationes Mycologicae [Mycological Observations](PDF) (in Latin). Vol. 1. Leipzig: Wolf. p. 50. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-01-04.
  3. ↑ Kummer P. (1871). Der Führer in die Pilzkunde [Mushroom-hunter's Guide] (in German). Zerbst: C. Luppe. p. 114.
  4. ↑ Karsten P. (1879). "Rysslands, Finlands och den Skandinaviska halföns Hattsvampar. Förra Delen: Skifsvampar" [Mushrooms of Russia, Finland and the Scandinavian peninsula. Final part: Agarics]. Bidrag till Kännedom av Finlands Natur och Folk (in Finnish). 32: 154.
  5. ↑ Karsten PA (1889). "Kritisk öfversigt af Finlands Basidsvampar (Basidiomycetes; Gastero- & Hymenomycetes)" [Critical overview of Finland's Basidiomycetes]. Bidrag till Kännedom av Finlands Natur och Folk (in Swedish). 48: 103.
  6. ↑ Métrod G. (1952). "Les Collybies" [The collybias]. Revue de Mycologie (in French). 17: 60–93.
  7. ↑ Singer R. (1962). "New genera of fungi. VIII". Persoonia. 2 (3): 407–15.
  8. ↑ Stevenson J. (1886). British Fungi (Hymenomycetes). Vol. 1. Agaricus–Bolbitius. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons. p. 110.
  9. ↑ "List of recommended English Names for Fungi in the UK" (PDF). British Mycological Society. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16.
  10. ↑ Smith JE (1836). The English Flora. Vol. 5. II. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. p. 50.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Noordeloos ME, Kuyper TW, Vellinga EC (1999). Flora Agaricina Neerlandica. Vol. 4. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 180. ISBN   978-90-5410-493-3.
  12. ↑ Kukovinets OS, Abdullin MI, Zainullin RA, Kunakova RV, Zaikov GE (2008). Chemical and Physical Methods for Protecting Biopolymers Against Pests. New York: Nova Publishers. p. 84. ISBN   978-1-60456-331-3.
  13. ↑ Anke T, Steglich W (1999). "Strobilurins and oudemansins". In Grabley S, Thiericke R (eds.). Drug Discovery from Nature. Berlin: Springer. p.  320. ISBN   978-3-54064-844-4.
  14. ↑ Phillip R. (2006). Mushrooms. London: Pan Macmillan. p. 125. ISBN   978-0-330-44237-4.
  15. 1 2 3 Sterry P, Hughes B (2009). Complete Guide to British Mushrooms & Toadstools. London: HarperCollins. p. 150. ISBN   978-0-00-723224-6.
  16. ↑ Laessoe T. (2002). Mushrooms. Smithsonian Handbooks (2nd ed.). London: Dorling Kindersley Adult. p. 133. ISBN   978-0-7894-8986-9.
  17. 1 2 Redhead SE (1980). "The genus Strobilurus in Canada with notes on extralimital species". Canadian Journal of Botany. 58: 68–83. doi:10.1139/b80-009.
  18. ↑ Natour RM (2006). Wild Mushrooms of Jordan. Amman: Higher Council of Science and Technology. p. 104.
  19. ↑ Shiono Y, Hiramatsu F, Murayama T, Koseki T, Funakoshi T (2008). "Two cyathane-type diterpenoids from the liquid culture of Strobilurus tenacellus". Chemistry & Biodiversity. 5 (9): 1811–6. doi:10.1002/cbdv.200890170. PMID   18816532. S2CID   205544805.
  20. ↑ Suay I; Arenal F; Asensio FJ; Basilio A; Cabello MA; Díez MT; Juan B García; del Val AG; Gorrochategui J; Hernández P; Peláez F; Vicente MF (2000). "Screening of basidiomycetes for antimicrobial activities". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 78 (2): 129–39. doi:10.1023/A:1026552024021. PMID   11204765. S2CID   23654559.
  21. ↑ Anke T, Oberwinkler F, Steglich W, Schramm G (1977). "Strobilurins – new antifungal antibiotics from Basidiomycete Strobilurus tenacellus (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing". Journal of Antibiotics. 30 (10): 806–10. doi: 10.7164/antibiotics.30.806 . PMID   563391.
  22. ↑ Bartlett DW, Clough JM, Godwin JR, Hall AA, Hamer M, Parr-Dobrzanski B (2004). "The strobilurin fungicides". Pest Management Science. 58 (7): 649–62. doi:10.1002/ps.520. PMID   12146165.
  23. ↑ Hofrichter M. (2010). Industrial Applications. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. p. 137. ISBN   978-3-642-11457-1.
  24. ↑ Kim BS, Hwang BK (2004). "Biofungicides". In Arora DK (ed.). Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications. New York: CRC Press. p. 125. ISBN   978-0-8247-4770-1.
  25. ↑ Reddy, P.Parvatha (2013). "Chapter 12: Strobilurin fungicides". Recent advances in crop protection. New Delhi: Springer. pp. 185–200. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-0723-8. ISBN   978-81-322-0722-1. S2CID   13212055.
  26. ↑ "Pesticide Properties DataBase". University of Hertfordshire.
  27. ↑ Buczacki S. (2001). "Berkeley's legacy – who cares?". Mycological Research. 105 (11): 1283–94. doi:10.1017/S0953756201005081.

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