Strobilurus tenacellus | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Basidiomycota |
Class: | Agaricomycetes |
Order: | Agaricales |
Family: | Physalacriaceae |
Genus: | Strobilurus |
Species: | S. tenacellus |
Binomial name | |
Strobilurus tenacellus | |
Synonyms [1] | |
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Strobilurus tenacellus, commonly known as the pinecone cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Physalacriaceae. It is found in Asia and Europe, where it grows on the fallen cones of pine and spruce trees. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) are small, with convex to flat, reddish to brownish caps up to 15 mm (0.6 in) in diameter, set atop thin cylindrical stems up to 4–7.5 cm (1.6–3.0 in) long with a rooting base. A characteristic microscopic feature of the mushroom is the sharp, thin-walled cystidia found on the stipe, gills, and cap. The mushrooms, sometimes described as edible, are too small to be of culinary interest. The fungus releases compounds called strobilurins that suppress the growth and development of other fungi. Derivatives of these compounds are used as an important class of agricultural fungicides.
The species was first described as Agaricus tenacellus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his 1796 Observationes Mycologicae. [2] In its taxonomic history, it has been moved to the genera Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1803, Marasmius by Jules Favre in 1939, and Pseudohiatula by Georges Métrod in 1952. Rolf Singer transferred it to the newly circumscribed genus Strobilurus in 1962, giving it the name by which it is currently known. [7]
The specific epithet tenacellus is a diminutive form of the Latin word tenax, meaning "tough". [8] Its British Mycological Society-recommended common name is the "pinecone cap". [9] English botanist James Edward Smith called it the "dark fir-cone Agaric" in his 1836 work The English Flora. [10]
The cap is initially convex before flattening out, sometimes retaining a small central papilla, and sometimes developing a central depression; the cap diameter reaches 5–15 mm (0.2–0.6 in). The smooth cap is hygrophanous (i.e., it changes colour as it loses or absorbs moisture), and has shallow radial grooves extending about halfway up the cap. Its colour is reddish to brownish, and is often paler in the center than the margin; when dry, the colour fades to greyish. The greyish-white gills have a free to deeply emarginate (notched) attachment to the cap. They are somewhat crowded together, numbering 20–25 gills with 1 to 7 tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe). The cylindrical stipe measures 4–7.5 cm (1.6–3.0 in) long by 0.5–2 mm thick, and has at its base a root-like pseudorrhiza that extends into the substrate. The upper stipe is yellowish brown, while lower it is dark orange-brown to reddish brown. The flesh has no odour and usually has a bitter taste. [11] While the fruit bodies are sometimes described as are edible, [12] [13] they are too small to be of culinary interest. [14]
The spore print is white. [15] Spores are roughly elliptical to tear-shaped, with dimensions of 5.0–7.5 by 2.4–4.0 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, and measure 20–40 by 7–11 μm. Cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are thin walled, plentiful, spindle-shaped to somewhat flask-shaped with a sharp tip, and measure 30–70 by 3–10 μm. The pleurocystidia (on the gill face) are similar in shape and size to the cheilocystidia, although usually not quite as numerous. The cap cuticle is made of a hymeniderm of club-shaped to somewhat spherical cells measuring 8–25 by 7–20 μm, mixed with flask-shaped pileocystidia (cystidia on the cap) that are 20–45 by 5–11 μm. Hyphae lack clamp connections. [11]
Strobilurus esculentus and S. stephanocystis are similar in appearance to S. tenacellus. S. esculentus mushrooms have thin, sharp cap margins and only fruit on fallen spruce cones. [16] S. stephanocystis has a yellow-brown to reddish-yellow cap that is not hygrophanous. [11] Baeospora myosura is another small agaric that grows on pine and spruce cones, but it fruits in autumn. [15]
Strobilurus tenacellus is a saprobic wood-rotting fungus. It fruits singly or in small groups on fallen and often partially buried cones of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ), European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and sometimes spruce ( Picea ) in coniferous and mixed forests. [11] It is found in Europe [17] and Asia, where it has been recorded in Japan [17] and Jordan. [18] In Europe, the fungus usually fruits from March to June. [11] Its occurrence is occasional. [15]
Two cyathane-like diterpenoids, (12S)-11α,14α-epoxy-13α,14β,15-trihydroxycyath-3-ene and (12R)-11α,14α-epoxy-13α,14β,15-trihydroxycyath-3-ene, have been isolated and identified from the liquid culture of the fungus. These compounds inhibit the growth of certain tumor cells when grown in vitro . [19]
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility, methanol-based extracts of Strobilurus tenacellus fruit bodies were shown in a 2000 study to have low antibacterial activity against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis , and low to moderate activity against the fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus . [20] The fungus produces the natural antibiotic strobilurin A, which was reported as a novel compound from this species in 1977; [21] other strobilurins have since been found in other basidiomycete wood-rotting fungi, [22] like Porcelain Mushroom for example. Strobilurin A is thought to be derived biosynthetically from the amino acid L-phenylalanine. In nature, the fungus secretes the chemical to prevent invasion by other fungi that challenge its nutrient source. It works by blocking electron transfer in the mitochondria, stopping respiration by binding to the ubihydroquinone oxidation center of the bc1 complex. This prevents the competing fungus from creating its own energy and inhibiting its growth at the earliest stages of the life cycle, the spore germination stage. The fungus is resistant to its own chemical because its ubihydroquinone has three amino acid residues that prevent the strobilurins from binding. [23] Because of their sensitivity to light, and high vapor pressures that causes them to rapidly disappear when applied to the surface of a leaf, chemically unmodified strobilurins are not generally useful as fungicides for agricultural use. [24] The strobilurin-derived compound azoxystrobin, first made commercially available in 1996, was designed to overcome these limitations. It is the world's biggest-selling fungicide. [25] Other commercial fungicides developed from the strobilurins include kresoxim-methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. [26] [27]
Strobilurins are a group of natural products and their synthetic analogs. A number of strobilurins are used in agriculture as fungicides. They are part of the larger group of QoIs, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.
Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed, and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown in mass, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 micrometres.
Caloboletus calopus, commonly known as the bitter beech bolete or scarlet-stemmed bolete, is a fungus of the bolete family, found in Asia, Northern Europe and North America. Appearing in coniferous and deciduous woodland in summer and autumn, the stout fruit bodies are attractively coloured, with a beige to olive cap up to 15 cm (6 in) across, yellow pores, and a reddish stipe up to 15 cm (6 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) wide. The pale yellow flesh stains blue when broken or bruised.
Neolentinus ponderosus, commonly known as the giant sawgill, is a species of fungus in the family Gloeophyllaceae. Found in western North America, it was originally described in 1965 as a species of Lentinus by American mycologist Orson K. Miller.
Atheniella adonis, which has the recommended name of scarlet bonnet in the UK, is a species of agaric in the family Cyphellaceae. Found in Asia, Europe, and North America, it produces small orangish to reddish mushrooms with caps up to 1.2 cm (0.5 in) in diameter and thin pinkish-white stems reaching 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The fungus typically grows in conifer woods and peat bogs, suggesting a preference for acidic environments. The appearance of several atypical fruitings on deciduous wood in the Netherlands in the late 1970s was attributed to increases in atmospheric pollution that raised the acidity of the wood substrate.
Mycena cinerella, commonly known as the mealy bonnet, is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and the United States, where it grows in groups on fallen leaves and needles under pine and Douglas fir. The small grayish mushrooms have caps that are up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide atop stipes that are 5 cm (2.0 in) long and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) thick. Its gills are grayish-white and adnate, with a "tooth" that runs slightly down the stipe. The fungus has both two- and four-spored basidia. As its common name suggests, it smells mealy.
Mycena vitilis, commonly known as the snapping bonnet, is a species of inedible mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the ground among leaves in damp places, especially under alder. The small pale gray to whitish fruit bodies are usually attached to small sticks buried in the leaves and detritus. They are distinguished by their long, slender stems that root into the ground, and by the grooved cap that reaches diameters of up to 2.2 cm (0.9 in). The grayish-white gills on the underside of the cap are distantly spaced, and adnately attached to the stem. M. vitilis contains strobilurin B, a fungicidal compound with potential use in agriculture.
Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined.
Cystodermella cinnabarina is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Cystodermella. Its fruiting body is a small agaric bearing a distinctive reddish-coloured grainy cap. It occurs in coniferous and deciduous forests throughout the world. Prior to 2002, this species belonged to genus Cystoderma, subsection Cinnabarina, under the name Cystoderma cinnabarinum which is still sometimes applied. Another often used synonym is Cystoderma terreyi.
Agaricus hondensis, commonly known as the felt-ringed agaricus, is a species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae. The species was officially described in 1912 by mycologist William Alphonso Murrill, along with three other Agaricus species that have since been placed in synonymy with A. hondensis. Found in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, A. hondensis fruits in the fall under conifers or in mixed forests.
Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.
Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.
Collybia tuberosa, commonly known as the lentil shanklet or the appleseed coincap, is an inedible species of fungus in the family Tricholomataceae, and the type species of the genus Collybia. Like the two other members of its genus, it lives on the decomposing remains of other fleshy mushrooms. The fungus produces small whitish fruit bodies with caps up to 1 cm (0.4 in) wide held by thin stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. On the underside of the cap are closely spaced white gills that are broadly attached to the stem. At the base of the stem, embedded in the substrate is a small reddish-brown sclerotium that somewhat resembles an apple seed. The appearance of the sclerotium distinguishes it from the other two species of Collybia, which are otherwise very similar in overall appearance. C. tuberosa is found in Europe, North America, and Japan, growing in dense clusters on species of Lactarius and Russula, boletes, hydnums, and polypores.
Volvariella surrecta, commonly known as the piggyback rosegill, is an agaric fungus in the family Pluteaceae. Although rare, the species is widely distributed, having been reported from Asia, North America, Northern Africa, Europe, and New Zealand. The fungus grows as a parasite on the fruit bodies of other gilled mushrooms, usually Clitocybe nebularis. V. surrecta mushrooms have white or greyish silky-hairy caps up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, and white gills that turns pink in maturity. The stipe, also white, is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) long, and has a sack-like volva at its base.
Cortinarius camphoratus, commonly known as the goatcheese webcap, is an agaric fungus in the family Cortinariaceae. The fungus is found in Europe and North America, where its fruit bodies (mushrooms) grow on the ground in a mycorrhizal association with spruce and firs in coniferous forests. Mushrooms are characterized by pale blue lilac colors when young, and a strong distinctive odor. Sources disagree as to the edibility of the mushroom, but they are generally not recommended for eating.
Tubaria punicea is a rare species of agaric fungus in the family Tubariaceae. It is found on the west coast of North America, where it grows on the bases and in hollows of madrone.
Mycena purpureofusca, commonly known as the purple edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885, the species is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers, including cones. Fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped purple caps up to 2.5 cm (1 in) set atop slender stipes up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish-purple color of its gill edges. In the field, M. purpureofusca mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes.
Stropharia caerulea, commonly known as the blue roundhead, is an inedible species of agaric fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is a common species found in Europe and North America, where it grows as a saprophyte in meadows, roadsides, hedgerows, gardens, and woodchip mulch. S. caerulea was officially described to science in 1979, although it was known to be a distinct species for about two centuries before that. The taxon Stropharia cyanea, as defined by Risto Tuomikoski in 1953, and used by several later authors, is a synonym of S. caerulea.
Hygrocybe appalachianensis, commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap, is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family. It is found in the eastern United States, where it fruits singly, in groups, or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests. The species, described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains, was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus. It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998, in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae.
Psilocybe angulospora is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The species was described from Taiwan in 2015 and is also present in New Zealand, where it is considered introduced. As a blueing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin.