Temple elephant

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Temple elephant at the Srirangam Temple, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, 2006 Elephant among the pillars of Srirangam temple, Tiruchirapalli.jpg
Temple elephant at the Srirangam Temple, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, 2006
Temple elephant at the Kumbeswarar Temple, Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, 2020 Kumbeswarar temple 07.jpg
Temple elephant at the Kumbeswarar Temple, Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, 2020

Temple elephants are a type of captive elephant that are kept in temples in Asian countries such as India and Sri Lanka.

Contents

Elephants generally play an important role in the Hinduism and Buddhism cultures of South and Southeast Asia and are considered sacred. Temple elephants are usually wild animals, poached from wild herds at a young age and then sold into captivity to temples. [1] Temple elephants usually take part in religious rituals or processions; believers also allow themselves to be blessed by them. [2] However, sometimes a temple owns elephants that are not all used for rituals. [3] [4] [5] At large religious festivals (e.g. in Thrissur Pooram), privately owned elephants which are considered particularly sacred due to special physical characteristics are also used. In the literature these are also referred to as temple or ceremonial elephants.

In the early 21st century, experts and conservationists strongly criticised the keeping of captive elephants in temples, as the living conditions are usually problematic and the elephants have little opportunity to fulfil their natural needs. [6] Others [ who? ] claim that elephants form a vital part of the socio-economic framework of many temple ceremonies and festivals in India, particularly in South India.

History

In Hinduism, the elephant-headed god Ganesha exists as an embodiment of wisdom, scholarship and prosperity. [7] The sacred white elephant Airavata is considered the ancestor of all elephants and plays a prominent role as the mount of the god Indra. [8] [9] According to Buddhist legends, the mother of the historical Gautama Buddha only became pregnant with him after seeing a white elephant in a dream; Buddha is also said to have been saved later by an elephant that was supposed to crush him. [10] There are other myths in Hinduism in which elephants play an important role. As a result, not only are South and Southeast Asian temples often decorated with elephant sculptures, but living elephants are also kept in temples to bring good luck according to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. [11] In some temples, elephants have a special meaning in connection with a deity worshipped at this place. [12]

The tradition of keeping temple elephants is ancient, but it is not known exactly when it began. Despite the religious associations, elephants are said to have originally been used primarily to transport water from the nearest river to the temple; they had to stand near the temple during certain 'auspicious hours', but lived freely in the forest near the temple the rest of the time. [12] It is only later that other ritual functions are said to have developed. Some researchers suspect that war elephants were once also housed in temples between battles (Ghosh, 2005) - this mainly related to temples with a tradition of male elephants, such as in the Indian state of Kerala. [13]

India

Temple elephant in regalia at Meenakshi Temple, Madurai, Tamil Nadu Temple elephant, Menakshi Temple, Madurai (5) (37479503176).jpg
Temple elephant in regalia at Meenakshi Temple, Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Origin and general characteristics

Important temples, especially in South India, keep their own temple elephants in the modern era, which are acquired either by purchase or as gifts. [14] However, it is possible that elephants declared as a 'gift' to a temple at the end of the 20th or in the 21st century were actually acquired on the illegal black market. This was a common practice after India banned the trade in elephants in 1972 and the capture of wild elephants in 1982. Illegal elephant trade (e.g. in Sonpur Mela) continued until the present day (2024). [15] [16] [17]

Temples and festivals in Tamil Nadu and Kerala [18] [15] and other states were determined to be involved in the illegal elephant trade. According to Suparna Baksi Ganguly, founder of the Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation Centre in Bangalore City, elephant babies or children are usually caught illegally in the northern forests of Assam, Bihar or Arunachal Pradesh and smuggled across several state borders to southern Indian states, utilizing corruption and bribes. [19] Only very rarely has an elephant been explicitly "rescued" in a temple; [20] conversely, maltreated elephants have to be rescued from temples more often. [21] [22]

Elephants that are already born in a temple are extremely rare, as many temple elephants are kept alone and in isolation. These elephants have little or no contact with the opposite sex, and the reproductive capacity of female elephants in captivity is greatly reduced, especially if they are not comfortable. Furthermore, male elephants in musth - an important requirement for mating - are usually isolated and strictly chained. [23] [24] Furthermore, according to Richard C. Lair (1997) "Hindu temples ... have specific prohibitions against breeding". [25] In 2009, there were no animals under 6 years of age among India's temple elephants, with most of them aged between 16 and 60 years old. [14]

In the states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, mainly female temple elephants are found. [26] In the age of social media, some of these elephants are particularly well-known or popular, such as in Tamil Nadu the temple elephants Andal (or Andaal) at the Srirangam (or Sri Ranganathaswamy) temple in Tiruchirappalli, [27] Akila at Jambukeshwara temple in Tiruvanaikkaval [28] or Mangalam at the Kumbeswara (or Kumbeswarar Kovil) temple in Kumbakonam [29] (2024).

In the southern Indian state of Kerala, traditionally male temple elephants are favoured, but they are more aggressive and can be dangerous, especially during intermittent musth periods. [30] The Guruvayur Temple in the Thrissur district alone in 2009 had 54 bull elephants, plus 6 females, [31] in 2019, there were 45 bulls, of which only 13 were used for rituals, according to Sangita Iyer. [32] [33]

Tasks

Blessing Temple Elephant at Oppiliappan Temple, Kumbakonam, 2007 Temple Elephant, oppiliappan temple.jpg
Blessing Temple Elephant at Oppiliappan Temple, Kumbakonam, 2007

The temple elephants take part in religious ceremonies in the temple together with their mahouts. Their faces, trunks and ears are painted and they may also be adorned with garlands, colourful shabracks and a so-called nettipattom, [34] [35] which covers the forehead and part of the trunk. Temple elephants often also wear one or more bells around their neck or on their body. They are also trained in some special skills beforehand, such as bowing [36] or assuming a kind of "prayer posture" with the trunk raised to the forehead; [37] some elephants also learn to play the mouth organ (or harmonica). [38]

One of the duties of the temple elephants is to stand together with their mahout at a certain place in the temple, often near the entrance, to give blessing to the worshippers, which consists of briefly placing or tapping the trunk on their heads. [39] According to a 2010 study, temple elephants in Tamil Nadu spent on average about 4+1⁄2 hours [40] doing these blessings every day and have to stand the whole time (sometimes chained up). [41] According to Surendra Varma et al. (2009) individual elephants must give the blessing 800 to 2000 times on feast days. [42]

There are also special religious festivals with glamorous elephant processions and parades, which attract many tourists - the elephant parades in Kerala are particularly famous. [43] Elephants and their mahouts are also hired for the big temple festivals, which can cost up to around 10,000 dollars per elephant per festival. [43] The Guruvayur temple mentioned above, for example, rents out its elephants and around 2019 charged 700,000 rupees (= approx. 11,600 dollars) per day for a "celebrity elephant". [44]

Living conditions, problems, criticism

Elephant in chains with injured skin, Thrissur Pooram Festival, Kerala Elephants of Kerala F18 8823.jpg
Elephant in chains with injured skin, Thrissur Pooram Festival, Kerala

A first great scientific study on temple elephants and their living conditions was published in 2009. 267 elephants from 112 temples in five Indian states were analysed; the majority of the elephants studied (161) lived in Kerala. [45] The results were alarming: there were considerable deficits in nine out of ten parameters observed (e.g. food, shelter, exercise opportunities, health, access to water and bathing opportunities, social contacts with other elephants, etc.), which are vital for elephants in captivity; a species-typical behaviour of the temple elephants was curtailed in a variety of ways. [46]

Overall, the 2009 researchers came to the following conclusion: "Keeping of elephants in temples and ensuring their welfare therein seems to be an uphill task. It is in the interest of the elephants and of the general public that no new elephants be brought under the management of temples. It would be best to phase out temple elephants over a designated period of time“. [47]

Elephant conservation activist Sangita Iyer reached a wider audience with her 2016 award-winning documentary film Gods in Shackles, in which she exposes the brutal reality of temple and ceremonial elephants behind the glittering façade of religious festivals such as Thrissur Pooram. [43] [48] [49] [50] Iyer, her organisation Voices for Asian elephants and various other animal welfare organisations around the world are campaigning against the common cruel practices. Often, temple elephants are taken from their mothers as babies and subjected to the procedure known as phajaan , in which they are tied up, beaten, or starved to make them docile. [51] [52] [53] [54] [55]

If separation from the mother happens too early (and the baby survives), this has lifelong health consequences for the elephant, as elephant calves are dependent on their mother's milk for a very long time. Later, the elephants not only have to stand around for hours on hard concrete or stone floors - according to a 2010 study, temple elephants in Tamil Nadu had less than one hour of exercise a day and had to stand for about 70 per cent of their time [56] –, usually shackled with short chains and isolated from conspecifics, they are also beaten and threatened with sharp elephant hooks. Many animals have problems with their feet and joints or other health problems and/or show stereotypical behaviour, such as rocking back and forth, which is typical of animals in captivity and indicates mental trauma. [57] [56]

In contrast to its negative origin, this stereotypical behaviour may be misinterpreted by Indian mahouts and followers of traditional elephant husbandry as “dancing" and as a sign that an elephant is happy. [58] In particularly bad cases, elephants have also been put on chains with sharp hooks that dig into their flesh, and some animals have had their eyes pecked out by angry mahouts. During religious festivals, the animals, gifted with exceptionally fine hearing, also have to endure the clamour of huge crowds and the noise of firecrackers. [50] [43] [11] Even elephants suffering from painful rheumatism, arthritis, bronchitis or other chronic diseases were rarely spared from participating in strenuous festivals. Despite legal regulations to the contrary, the owners had obviously corrupt or incompetent vets certify the alleged health and 'fitness’ of an elephant that was actually ill. [59] Around 2009, temple elephants in Kerala took part in 40 to 100 different programmes during the festival season and had to travel repeatedly to different locations within a radius of 35 to 150 km. [60] As of 2019, the elephants of the Guruvayur temple were given a diet that was far too unbalanced, had no access to water in the sweltering heat and suffered from sometimes fatal diseases caused by poor hygiene, among other issues. [61]

Male captive elephants are treated particularly harshly. Every year, during their three- to four-month long musth periods, they are constantly tied up in a confined space, unable to move. At the end of musth they are subjected to a traditional “ritual" called Katti Adikkal, where they are beaten continuously for 48 to 72 hours by a group of men in order to break their will again (similar to phajaan). [62] [63]

The famous elephant Thechikkottukavu Ramachandran in ceremonial regalia during a procession, 2011 (Ramanchira temple, Thrissur) SreeRama Navami 2011 (Ramanchira temple, Thrissur) 12042011775.jpg
The famous elephant Thechikkottukavu Ramachandran in ceremonial regalia during a procession, 2011 (Ramanchira temple, Thrissur)

The severe, traumatising stress on the animals is expressed not least in repeated news reports of elephants either suddenly and seemingly unexpectedly ‘going berserk’ and injuring or ‘killing’ their mahout or another human [30] [64] - probably often unintentionally - [65] [66] [67] [68] or sometimes trample people to death in the midst of crowds. A well-known case of the latter is the famous and highly revered bull elephant Thechikottukavu Ramachandran, who is considered the ‘largest Asian elephant in captivity’, who ‘ran amok’ several times out of stress and killed both humans and conspecifics; [43] Ramachandran himself is the victim of a mahout who at some point hacked one of his eyes blind. [69] Ramachandran for security reasons has already been banned by the government from the famous Thrissur Pooram temple festival, where he opened a temple gate during a traditional ceremony to the enthusiastic cries of an unleashed crowd. [70] However, due to massive protests from the festival organisers, elephant owners, fans and the Kerala Elephant Owners Federation, he had to be allowed back in. [71]

Possibly in response to the increasing protests about animal cruelty, so-called ‘rejuvenation camps’ were set up for temple elephants, which take place once a year for around six weeks. [72] [73] However, the elephants still have to stand around chained, and many have severe problems with their legs. Some also make stereotypical pendulum movements with their heads, which are considered a typical sign of mental trauma, due to the chronic lack of movement and standing still for long periods of time. [74] [75] [76] [77] In 2021, there was a scandal over a YouTube video showing two mahouts in a ‘rejuvenation camp’ abusing a female temple elephant from Assam with beatings. [78] [79]

To reduce the burden on existing domesticated elephants, robotics companies Four He-Art Creations and Aanamaker with PETA India and the group Voices for Asian Elephants began constructing imitative animatronic elephants. The first robotic elephant was donated to the Irinjadappilly Sree Krishna Temple in Thrissur, Kerala in 2023; 5 more robot elephants have been made for temples across the South India region since. [1] [80] [81] [82]

Sri Lanka

Elephants with Buddha reliquary at the Kandy Esala Perahera, Sri Lanka, c. 1885 Esala Perehera festival in 1885.jpg
Elephants with Buddha reliquary at the Kandy Esala Perahera, Sri Lanka, c. 1885

The situation of the temple elephants is similar in Sri Lanka, where there are also large festivals with elephant parades, the most famous of which is the so-called Kandy Esala Perahera [83] [84] and the Perahera of Kataragama. [85] The processions of the Kandy Esala Perahera revolve around a sacred tooth relic of the Buddha, which is kept in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple (or tooth temple) in Kandy; about 60 elephants are required to participate in the processions in July through August. [86] [87]

Only a few selected male elephants are allowed to wear the tooth reliquary: they must be very sociable and traditionally have certain physical characteristics - they must be particularly large, have long impressive tusks, and 7 points of the body (the 4 legs, the trunk, the penis and the tail) must all touch the ground at the same time. [88] [89] The corresponding elephants are assigned to a particular caste, are considered particularly noble and receive great respect. In the 20th and early 21st century, these included Maligawa Raja (around 1913–1988; from 1953 to 1986), Heiyantuduwa Raja († 2002; from 1991 to 2000) and Nadungamuwa Raja (1953–2022; from 2006 to 2021). [88] [90] After the death of Maligawa Raja in 1988, a national day of mourning was declared; later his body was stuffed and is on display in a special museum in the Temple of the Tooth. Nadungamuwa Raja was also stuffed in 2022 after a solemn state funeral following Buddhist rites on the orders of President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. [88] [89] [91] [92] Heiyantuduwa Raja was not just a temple or ceremonial elephant, but was also hired out for some films, including Indiana Jones ; his skeleton is in the Colombo National Museum. [93] [94] [90]

There have also been protests by animal rights activists against the abuse of Sri Lanka's temple elephants. [85] In 2019, the case of the old female elephant Tikiri was reported in the press. Despite her alarmingly weakened and emaciated physical condition, which had been hidden by the glamorous full-body disguise, she had to participate in the Perahera in Kandy for the umpteenth time and for days on end and, according to a report by the Thai animal rights activist Lek Chailert, died just a few weeks later in September 2019. [86] [87] [95]

In 2023, the case of a 29-year-old male temple elephant named Muthu Raja (‘Pearl King’ alias Sak Surin) made international headlines. Muthu Raja came to Sri Lanka in 2001 alongside two other elephants as a gift from the Thai royal family and lived there as a temple elephant in the Buddhist Kande Viharaya temple; he also took part in religious processions. Following allegations of neglect and abuse in the logging industry, the elephant - who suffered from several abscesses and a stiff leg from an untreated injury - was sent back to Thailand, where he was treated at the Thai Elephant Conservation Centre, Lampang. The case also led to diplomatic disgruntlement between the two countries. [96] [97] [98]

Myanmar

The Buddhist Uppatasanti Pagoda in Myanmar's capital Naypyidaw, inaugurated in 2009, keeps several white elephants on its grounds. These are revered as particularly sacred and precious not only in Myanmar, but throughout Southeast Asia, and may not be used for work. [99] As a result, these elephants are not used for rituals, processions or blessings, but live near the pagoda in a separate compound similar to a zoo. [100] [101] [102] However, stereotypical rocking back and forth was also observed in this case, which indicates that these elephants are obviously not kept optimally (e.g. on tight chains, on hard stone floors). [99] [103]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Nadia Nooreyezdan (30 Sep 2024). "PETA is building robot elephants for Hindu temples". Rest of World . Retrieved 23 Oct 2024.
  2. ↑ "The elephant is made to stand in the temple premises for work such as blessing devotees...". Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, CUPA/ANCF-Technical Report No 13. Compassion Unlimited Plus Action (CUPA) and Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (ANCF), Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 10
  3. ↑ The Guruvayur temple in Kerala in 2009 owned 60 elephants. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, CUPA/ANCF-Technical Report No 13. Compassion Unlimited Plus Action (CUPA) und Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (ANCF), Bangalore, Indien, 2009, p. 89
  4. ↑ Sangita Iyer (2019-09-12). The Dark Truth Behind Guruvayur Elephants . Retrieved 2025-09-14– via YouTube.
  5. ↑ In Kerala in general, about 7% of temple elephants were not used for labour in 2009. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 98
  6. ↑ Haines, Gavin (5 July 2016). "New documentary exposes brutal treatment of India's temple elephants". The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  7. ↑ Karl Gröning, Martin Saller: Der Elefant in Natur und Kultergeschichte, Könemann, Köln, 1998, p. 127–129 (German)
  8. ↑ Karl Gröning, Martin Saller: Der Elefant in Natur und Kultergeschichte, Könemann, Köln, 1998, S. 124
  9. ↑ Dowson, John (1879). A classical dictionary of Hindu mythology and religion, geography, history, and literature. Princeton Theological Seminary Library. London, Trübner & co.
  10. ↑ Karl Gröning, Martin Saller: Der Elefant in Natur und Kultergeschichte, Könemann, Köln, 1998, p. 130–131
  11. 1 2 "Temple Elephants – Elemotion". elemotion.org. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  12. 1 2 Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, CUPA/ANCF-Technical Report No 13. Compassion Unlimited Plus Action (CUPA) and Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (ANCF), Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 1
  13. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 87
  14. 1 2 Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 6
  15. 1 2 Protected birds, animals sold openly inside Asia’s ‘biggest cattle fair’, Artikel auf der Website von: FIAPO – Federation of Indian Animal Protection Organisations, 8 November 2017 (Retrieved on 19 July 2023)
  16. ↑ A prominent example of a donated elephant is Sundar, who was a gift from an Indian politician and lived in catastrophic conditions in the Jyotiba temple in Kolhapur; Sundar was later rescued in a sanctuary. Sangita Iyer: Gods in Shackles – What elephants can teach us about empathy, resilience and freedom, Hay House, Carlsbad (California)/New York/London/Sydney/New Delhi, 2022, p. 153 (capture of wild elephants forbidden in 1982) and p. 157—166 (Sundar elephant)
  17. ↑ "Kerala Temple celebrated 'Nadayiruthal' of lifelike mechanical elephant gifted by PETA India". PETA India. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  18. ↑ Anjana Shekar (2020-07-22). "Elephant Deivanai which trampled to death mahout in TN to be sent back to Assam". The News Minute. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  19. ↑ Here after: Sangita Iyer: Gods in Shackles – What elephants can teach us about empathy, resilience and freedom, Hay House, Carlsbad (California)/New York/London/Sydney/New Delhi, 2022, p. 153-154
  20. ↑ In 2009, out of 267 temple elephants observed in 112 temples, only one (in 1936) had been rescued. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 6
  21. ↑ Sangita Iyer: Gods in Shackles – What elephants can teach us about empathy, resilience and freedom, Hay House, Carlsbad (California)/New York/London/Sydney/New Delhi, 2022, p. 156, and pp. 157-166 (Elephant Sundar)
  22. ↑ Gajraj FAQ and Updates, 14 June 2017, and In Memory of ‘Gajraj’, Our Beloved Elephant King, 15 July 2020, on the Website of Wildlife SOS (Retrieved on 15 March 2025)
  23. ↑ In a study published in 2009, only 26 females out of 267 studied temple elephants had contact with bulls, but only 5 had a baby - it is not clear from the study what became of these five calves. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 30–31, 46–47, 71–72, 99–100, 122–123, 141
  24. ↑ A rare exception is a girl elephant named Shivany born in Dharmasthala on 1 July 2020. See Youtube videos: 1) Baby elephant in Dharmasthala temple named as Shivani, in: Tv9 Kannada. Retrieved on 31 August 2020; 2) Dharmasthala Shivani || ಮುದ್ದು ಗಜರಾಣಿ ಶಿವಾನಿಗೆ ಇದೀಗ 3 ವರ್ಷದ ಹುಟ್ಟುಹಬ್ಬದ ಸಂಭ್ರಮ –ಕಹಳೆ ನ್ಯೂಸ್, in: Kahale News, 29 June 2023 (Retrieved on 14 July 2024)
  25. ↑ See in the chapter India, the section: Captive breeding, in: Richard C. Lair: Gone Astray - The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Forestry Department, Rome, Italy and Forestry Department Group, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP). Printed by Dharmasarn Co., Ltd., Bangkok, 1997 (Retrieved on 23 July 2023)
  26. ↑ In 2009, out of 32 observed temple elephants in Karnataka, only 5 were male, and in Tamil Nadu, out of 25 elephants, only one was male. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 57 (Karnataka) and p. 134 (Tamil Nadu)
  27. ↑ There are currently (2024) two female elephants named Andal (or Andaal) and Lakshmi living there. See the YouTube videos: 1) Video with both elephants in ceremony, playing harmonica at the end, 2) Video with both elephants, 3) Video with both elephants, at the end in the swimming pool (Retrieved 22 June 2024).
  28. ↑ See: 6 videos on Youtube (Retrieved 15 July 2024)
  29. ↑ See the Youtube videos: 1) Portrait of Mangalam with Mahout on Indian TV, 2) Mangalam with Mahout in ceremony (Retrieved 22 June 2024)
  30. 1 2 "Nearly 50 % of observed elephants were reported to have killed/ injured handlers/ public, males were aggressive towards handlers while in musth: features that make this profession dangerous to both elephant and handler". Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 89 and 107
  31. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 89
  32. ↑ According to Iyer, the temple demanded even more elephants in a petition to the prime minister. Sangita Iyer: The dark truth behind Guruvayur Elephants, Video on Youtube, 12 September 2019 (Retrieved on 22 June 2024)
  33. ↑ Natarajan speaks of a total of 50 elephants in 2020. Swaminathan Natarajan: The woman trying to save India’s tortured temple elephants, in: BBC, 7 September 2020 (Retrieved on 22 June 2024).
  34. ↑ See: Kategorie:Nettipattom on Wikimedia Commons.
  35. ↑ Youtube video: Nettipattam - A Kerala Traditional Ornament That Is Being Forgotten, in: Choice Network, 13 Januar 2024 (Retrieved on 15 July 2024)
  36. ↑ See: 0.46-1.20 min in the YouTube video: Temple ceremony with bowing elephant (published on 23 March 2024; accessed on 22 June 2024)
  37. ↑ See Youtube video: Elephant Mangalam with mahout during ceremony at Kumbeshwara (or Kumbeswarar Kovil) temple in Kumbakonam (published on 13 May 2023; accessed on 22 June 2024)
  38. ↑ See the YouTube videos: 1) Temple elephants Andal and Lakshmi in ceremony at Srirangam temple in Tiruchirappalli, playing mouth organ at the end (accessed on 22 June 2024)
  39. ↑ See Youtube video: Temple elephant Andal at Srirangam Temple in Tiruchirappalli blesses Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and plays harmonica, in: Voice of America News, 20 January 2024 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  40. ↑ The time in the original text reads: „90% of the 5 hours/day time spent on daily rituals“.
  41. ↑ V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan und N. Baskaran: Daily routine of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in three management systems of Tamil Nadu, India and its implications for elephant welfare, Artikel in: Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation 2010, 3(3): S. 116-122, here: p. 118 und 120
  42. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 9
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 Swaminathan Natarajan: The woman trying to save India’s tortured temple elephants, in: BBC, 7 September 2020 (Retrieved on 22 June 2024).
  44. ↑ See 2.37-2.50 min in the following video. Sangita Iyer: The dark truth behind Guruvayur Elephants, Video on YouTube, 12 September 2019 (Retrieved on 22 June 2024)
  45. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, CUPA/ANCF-Technical Report No 13. Compassion Unlimited Plus Action (CUPA) and Asian Nature Conservation Foundation (ANCF), Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 21
  46. ↑ „Absence of features suitable to captive elephants for nine of the ten observed parameters indicates the extent of divergence from natural conditions in temples. Expression of species-typical behaviours can be curtailed in many ways.“ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, p. 2 and 6–7 (Summary of the results, citation on p. 7)
  47. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, p. 13
  48. ↑ Biography of Sangita Iyer, on the website of: Voices for Asian elephants (English; accessed 22 June 2024).
  49. ↑ Gods in shackles: Plight of temple elephants, in: The Times of India, 20 July 2016 (accessed on 22 June 2024).
  50. 1 2 YouTube video: Gods in Shackles Brand New Trailer, 5 November 2018 (accessed on 22 June 2024).
  51. ↑ See sections Baby elephants are captured in the wild and „broken.“ and Here’s what goes into making an elephant „rideable“, in: Plight of Captive Elephants, on the Website of: Wildlife SOS (accessed 19 July 2024)
  52. ↑ See section: The Pajaan (sic!): breaking the elephants‘ souls, in: Traditions - Temple Elephants, on the website: Turismo responsable (Spanish and English; accessed 22 June 2024).
  53. ↑ The term breaking (including descriptions) instead of phajaan is used in: Claire Ellicott: Saving Anne the Elephant – the true story of the last British Circus Elephant, John Blake Publishing, London, 2016, p. 74–76
  54. ↑ Lair also uses the term breaking (often also rough breaking), but fails to provide a more precise definition (likewise for other specialised terms such as kheddah or mela-shikar), e.g. in the chapter on Myanmar, section: Capture methods and mortality, in: Richard C. Lair: Gone Astray - The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Forestry Department, Rome, Italy and Forestry Department Group, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP). Printed by Dharmasarn Co., Ltd., Bangkok, 1997 (accessed 23 July 2023)
  55. ↑ Hüdig, Kenneth (2023-07-26). "SEF / ENP". Future for Elephants e.V. (in German). Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  56. 1 2 V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan, N. Baskaran: Daily routine of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in three management systems of Tamil Nadu, India and its implications for elephant welfare. Article in: Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation 2010, 3(3): p. 116–122, here: p. 120 and 121
  57. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, among others on p. 66 (Karnataka), p. 106 (Kerala), p. 139 (Tamil Nadu)
  58. ↑ See 36,00 – 37,30 min, in: Gods in Shackles, documentary from Sangita Iyer, 2016.
  59. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 11
  60. ↑ Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, p. 98
  61. ↑ See 3.19-5.30 min in the following video. Sangita Iyer: The dark truth behind Guruvayur Elephants, video on YouTube, 12 September 2019 (accessed 22 June 2024)
  62. ↑ Sangita Iyer: Gods in Shackles – What elephants can teach us about empathy, resilience and freedom, Hay House, Carlsbad (California)/New York/London/Sydney/New Delhi, 2022, p. 89–90
  63. ↑ According to Suparna Ganguly (among others). See 48,00 – 51,00 min, in: Gods in Shackles, documentary from Sangita Iyer, 2016.
  64. ↑ M. K. Ananth (15 April 2018). "Elephant tramples woman to death in Tirunelveli". Times of India. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  65. ↑ See the case of the female temple elephant Deivanai, which made the (Indian) press in November 2024. ETV Bharat English Team (19 November 2024). "Majestic Yet Misunderstood, Elephants In Focus After Murugan Temple Tragedy – The temple elephant, Deivanai, fatally attacked its mahout and another person, raising questions about the stress and conditions faced by these majestic animals". ETV Bharat. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  66. ↑ After the case of temple elephant Deivanai, animal welfare organisation PETA highlighted the elephant's inadequate and sad living conditions, as well as several other cases of temple elephants ‘on record’, and asked the Tamil Nadu Hindu Departments of Forest and Religious and Charitable Trusts to release the elephant to a sanctuary where she could live a less confined and happier life. Erika Goyal (21 November 2020). "PETA India Offers Gift of Mechanical Elephant to Replace Elephant Deivanai After the Killing of Two Men at Subramania Swamy Temple in Tiruchendur". PETA India. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  67. ↑ "PETA bats for mechanical elephant". The Times of India. 21 November 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  68. ↑ There are also (temple) elephants that repeatedly attract attention through aggressive, but rarely unfounded, behaviour, such as a female temple elephant also named ‘Deivanai’, who killed a mahout in 2020, not for the first time. Anjana Shekar (22 July 2020). "Elephant Deivanai which trampled to death mahout in TN to be sent back to Assam". The News Minute. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  69. ↑ Vishnu Varma: Thechikottukavu Ramachandran is still in business: The story behind Kerala’s most loved (and feared) elephant, in: The Indian Express, 12 May 2019 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  70. ↑ Youtube video: Thechikottukavu Ramachandran Mass Entry at Thrissur Pooram, 16 April 2016 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  71. ↑ Kerala: The 'killer' Indian elephant who's loved and feared, in: BBC, 9 February 2023 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  72. ↑ Youtube video: Elephant Rejuvenation Camp – Tamilnadu, India, 31 May 2016 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  73. ↑ Youtube video: India elephant 'rejuvenation camp' lets temple animals ‚relax‘ - BBC News, 9 March 2021 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  74. ↑ Stereotypical behaviour of many temple elephants has of course already been recorded before, see above. Surendra Varma, S. R. Sujata, M.C. Sathyanarayana, E.K. Easwaran, T.S. Rajeev, Mahesh Agarwal, N. Mohanraj, Nilesh Bhanage: Captive Elephants of Temples of India - An Investigation into the Status, Management and Welfare Significance, ..., Bangalore, India, 2009, see among others: p. 66 (Karnataka), p. 106 (Kerala), p. 139 (Tamil Nadu)
  75. ↑ Chained temple elephants in a rejuvenation camp, some of which make stereotypical pendulum movements with their heads - a sign of mental trauma - can be seen in the following YouTube video: Thekkampatti Elephant Camp | Coimbatore Elephant Camp, 18 February 2021 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  76. ↑ Elephants with walking difficulties due to problems with their legs - some of which are nevertheless ridden by mahouts - can be seen in the following YouTube video: Thekkampatti Elephant camp#mettupalayam..., 24 February 2021 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  77. ↑ Youtube video: Female elephants Andal and Akila chained in the ‘Rejuvenation’ camp, 24 February 2021 (accessed 22 June 2024).
  78. ↑ Temple Elephant beaten up in a rejuvenation camp in Tamil Nadu: Video goes viral | Oneindia News, 22 February 2021 (accessed 22 June 2024)
  79. ↑ A general news video on temple elephant suffering from December 2022 (also mentions beaten elephant in ‘rejuvenation’ camp)
  80. ↑ news/roboter-elefant-tempel/ For less animal suffering: PETA India donates lifelike robotic elephants to temples, 8 March 2023 (accessed 15 July 2024)
  81. ↑ By November 2024, after a year and a half, at least 8 temples were said to have robot elephants. Erika Goyal (21 November 2024). "PETA India Offers Gift of Mechanical Elephant to Replace Elephant Deivanai After the Killing of Two Men at Subramania Swamy Temple in Tiruchendur". PETA India. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  82. ↑ "PETA bats for mechanical elephant". The Times of India. 21 November 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  83. ↑ Kandy Esala Perahera: A Guide to Experiencing Sri Lanka’s Famous Festival, in: Lanka Tour Experts, 10 June 2024 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  84. ↑ The history of Kandy Esala Perahera, on the Website of the Kandy Esala Perahera, 10 June 2024 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  85. 1 2 Sri Lankas Peraheras - Sakrale Elefantenprozessionen, on the Website of: 3sat, 10 June 2024 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  86. 1 2 "Beloved elephant Tikiri dies in Sri Lanka after being forced to perform for decades". The Independent. 2019-09-25. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  87. 1 2 "Sri Lankan elephant Tikiri forced to perform in parades dies". BBC News . 2019-09-25. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  88. 1 2 3 "'National treasure': Sri Lanka's most revered elephant dies at 68". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  89. 1 2 Sri Lanka to hold state funeral for beloved sacred elephant Raja, in: 198 India News, 9 March 2022 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  90. 1 2 Youtube video: Heiyantuduwa Raja|හෙයියන්තුඩුවේ රාජා මතකාවර්ජනය විශේෂ විඩියෝ අංක 01, in: Elephant TV (official channel about the elephants of the Temple of the Tooth) Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy, 17 May 2024 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  91. ↑ Sravasti Dasgupta: Sri Lanka’s most sacred elephant will be stuffed and put on display after dying aged 68, in: Independent, 8 March 2022 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  92. ↑ South Asia Newsline (2022-03-11). Sri Lanka mourns death of sacred elephant 'Nadungamuwa Raja' . Retrieved 2025-09-14– via YouTube.
  93. ↑ Priyanka Kurugala: Heiyanthuduwe Raja’s tusks, skeleton preserved, in: Daily News, 8 February 2013 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  94. ↑ Webarchive, 2009 (accessed 9 June 2024)
  95. ↑ Lewis, Craig. "Tragic End for Tikiri, the Emaciated 70-year-old Elephant in Sri Lanka". Buddhistdoor Global. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  96. ↑ "Thai elephant flown home after alleged abuse in Sri Lanka". 2023-07-03. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  97. ↑ Francis, Krishan (2023-06-30). "A temple elephant in Sri Lanka will be airlifted back to Thailand after allegations of neglect". AP News. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  98. ↑ Whitaker, Justin. "Muthu Raja, a Thai Elephant Gifted to Sri Lanka for Buddhist Ceremonies, Returns Home After Neglect Allegations". Buddhistdoor Global. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  99. 1 2 Hirschi, Eva (2019-01-19). "Improving life for Yangon's white elephants". Frontier Myanmar. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  100. ↑ Roy, Sudipto (2017-05-16). "Nay Pyi Daw chronicle – The white elephants". INDIA OUTBOUND. Retrieved 2025-09-14.
  101. ↑ Sections White Elephants House and Uppatasanti Pagoda in: Myanmar - be enchanted: Nay Pyi Taw (accessed 17 June 2024)
  102. ↑ See 5,25-6,45 min in the Youtube video: UPPATASANTI PAGODA MYANMAR | Pagoda Terbesar Ikon Ibu Kota Myanmar (Naypyidaw) by Timotius Mulyadi, 7 June 2020 (retrieved 17 June 2024)
  103. ↑ Youtube videos: : 1) Myanmar`s White Elephants – A Life of Suffering (Film supported by Swiss Animal Protection STS); 2) Weisse Elefanten in Myanmar – Ein heiliges Tier in Kettenhaft (from: SRF Kultur). Both videos on: Niederwil, 27 September 2018 (retrieved on 17 June 2024)
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