Sumatran elephant

Last updated

Sumatran elephant
Elephant Sumatra ProfilG.jpg
Male Sumatran elephant in Aceh Province
Bayi gajah Sumatera di Taman Nasional Tesso Nilo.jpg
Cow and calf at Tesso Nilo National Park
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae
Genus: Elephas
Species:
E. maximus
Subspecies:
E. m. sumatranus [2]
Trinomial name
Elephas maximus sumatranus [2]
Temminck, 1847

The Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to the Indonesian island of Sumatra. In 2011, IUCN upgraded the conservation status of the Sumatran elephant from endangered to critically endangered in its Red List as the population had declined by at least 80% during the past three generations, estimated to be about 75 years. The subspecies is preeminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, and poaching; over 69% of potential elephant habitat has been lost within the last 25 years. Much of the remaining forest cover is in blocks smaller than 250 km2 (97 sq mi), which are too small to contain viable elephant populations. [1]

Contents

Characteristics

In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks. [3]

Sumatran elephants reach a shoulder height of between 2 and 3.2 m (6.6 and 10.5 ft), weigh between 2,000 and 4,000 kg (4,400 and 8,800 lb), and have 20 pairs of ribs. Their skin colour is lighter than of the Sri Lankan elephant and the Indian elephant even with the least depigmentation. [4]

Distribution and habitat

The Sumatran elephant was once widespread on the island, with the Riau Province believed to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra with over 1,600 individuals in the 1980s. [1] In 1985, an island-wide rapid survey suggested that between 2,800 and 4,800 elephants lived in all eight mainland provinces of Sumatra in 44 populations. Twelve of these populations occurred in Lampung Province, where only three populations were extant in 2002 according to surveys carried out between September 2000 and March 2002. The population in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park was estimated at 498 individuals, while the population in Way Kambas National Park was estimated at 180 individuals. The third population in Gunung Rindingan–Way Waya complex was considered to be too small to be viable over the long-term. [5]

By 2008, elephants had become locally extinct in 23 of the 43 ranges identified in Sumatra in 1985, indicating a very significant decline of the Sumatran elephant population up to that time. By 2008, the elephant was locally extinct in West Sumatra Province and at risk of being lost from North Sumatra Province too. In Riau Province only about 350 elephants survived across nine separate ranges. [1]

As of 2007, the population of Sumatran elephants is estimated to be 2,400–2,800 wild individuals, excluding elephants in camps, in 25 fragmented populations across the island. More than 85% of their habitat is outside of protected areas. [6]

In Aceh, radio-collared Sumatran elephant clans preferred areas in dense natural forests in river and mountain valleys at elevation below 200 m (660 ft); from there, they moved into heterogenous forests and foraged near human settlements mainly by night. [7]

Ecology and behaviour

Female elephants stop reproducing after 60 years of age.[ citation needed ] The maximum longevity in the wild is around 60 years. Female captive elephants have survived until 75 years while males have survived 60 years. [8] They give birth mostly at night, which lasts about 10 seconds. A healthy calf is usually able to stand up on its own after 30 minutes. [9]

Female elephants hit their growth plateau at a younger age and develop faster than male elephants, while male elephants grow to larger size and continue to grow as they age. [10]

Threats

Due to conversion of forests into human settlements, agricultural areas and plantations, many of the Sumatran elephant populations have lost their habitat to humans. As a result, many elephants have been removed from the wild or directly killed. [11] Between 1980 and 2005, 69% of potential Sumatran elephant habitat was lost within just one elephant generation. [5]

Most of the elephants found in Sumatran camps were captured after crop-raiding in protected areas. The reduction of the elephants' habitat for illegal conversion of agriculture and palm oil plantations still continues. [12] Between 2012 and 2015, 36 elephants were found dead in Aceh Province due to electrocution, poisoning, and traps. Most dead elephants were found near palm oil plantations, which elephants often attempt to destroy (sometimes successfully) as impediments to their foraging. [13] [14]

Sumatran elephants prefer areas of low elevation and gentler slopes, including those along the river and mountain valleys; humans also prefer these same features, which results in competition between elephants and humans for the same space. Crop protection efforts, which mainly consist of trying to chase elephants out of crop fields or moving them deeper into the forest away from farms, has restricted access for some elephants to these areas. [7]

Conservation

Sumatran elephants performing in a show at Taman Safari, Bogor Three elephants in a show in Taman Safari, Bogor, Indonesia.jpg
Sumatran elephants performing in a show at Taman Safari, Bogor

Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I. Sumatran elephants are protected under Indonesian law. [1]

In 2004, the Tesso Nilo National Park has been established in Riau Province to protect the Sumatran elephant's habitat. This forest is one of the last areas large enough to support a viable population of elephants. [15]

Between 1986 and 1995, 520 wild elephants were captured and kept in six Elephant Training Centres, which have been established since 1986 in the provinces of Lampung, Aceh, Bengkulu, North and South Sumatra, and Riau. Capturing wild elephants was stopped in 1999, since the maintenance of captive elephants was too expensive, their management had not become self-financing and because some of the centres were overcrowded. By the end of 2000, 391 elephants were kept in the centres, and a few more in zoos, safari parks and tourist areas. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elephant</span> Largest living land animals

Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons. Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin. The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth and grasping objects. Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatra</span> Island in western Indonesia

Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi.2), including adjacent islands such as the Simeulue, Nias, Mentawai, Enggano, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung and Krakatoa archipelago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian elephant</span> Second largest elephant species

The Asian elephant, also known as the Asiatic elephant, is a species of elephant distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west to Borneo in the east, and Nepal in the north to Sumatra in the south. Three subspecies are recognised—E. m. maximus, E. m. indicus and E. m. sumatranus. The Asian elephant is characterised by its long trunk with a single finger-like processing; large tusks in males; laterally folded large ears but smaller in contrast to African elephants; and wrinkled grey skin. The skin is smoother than African elephants and may be depigmented on the trunk, ears or neck. Adult males average 4 tonnes in weight, and females 2.7 t.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lampung</span> Province of Indonesia

Lampung, officially the Province of Lampung, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the southern tip of the island of Sumatra. It has a short border with the province of Bengkulu to the northwest, and a longer border with the province of South Sumatra to the north, as well as a maritime border with the provinces of Banten and Jakarta to the east. It is the home of the Lampung people, who speak their own language and possess their own written script. Its capital city is Bandar Lampung.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran tiger</span> Tiger subspecies endemic to Sumatra

The Sumatran tiger is a population of Panthera tigris sondaica on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is the only surviving tiger population in the Sunda Islands, where the Bali and Javan tigers are extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tesso Nilo National Park</span> National park in Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia

Tesso Nilo National Park is a national park in Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. It was declared a national park by the Indonesian government in 2004. The original area of the park was 385.76 km2, but the decision has been made to expand it to 1000 km2. Tesso Nilo National Park houses some of the largest coherent lowland rainforests remaining on Sumatra. The Center for Biodiversity Management has surveyed over 1,800 plots in tropical forests around the world. They found that no other plot has as many vascular plants as in Tesso Nilo. Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) surveyed forests throughout Sumatra, and also found that Tesso Nilo housed by far the most species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gunung Leuser National Park</span> National park in Sumatra, Indonesia

Gunung Leuser National Park is a national park covering 7,927 km2 in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, straddling the border of Aceh and North Sumatra provinces, a fourth portion and three-fourths portion, respectively. The national park, settled in the Barisan mountain range, is named after Mount Leuser (3,119 m), and protects a wide range of ecosystems. An orangutan sanctuary at Bukit Lawang is located within the park. Together with Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci Seblat National Parks, it forms a World Heritage Site, the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran orangutan</span> Species of ape

The Sumatran orangutan is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, orang 'people; person' and hutan 'forest', derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Way Kambas National Park</span> National park in Sumatra, Indonesia

Way Kambas National Park is a national park covering 1,300 km2 (500 sq mi) in Lampung province of southern Sumatra, Indonesia. It consists of swamp forest and lowland rain forest, mostly of secondary growth as result of extensive logging in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite decreasing populations, the park still has a few critically endangered Sumatran tigers, Sumatran elephants and Sumatran rhinoceroses. It also hosts over 400 bird species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Lankan elephant</span> Subspecies of the Asian elephant

The Sri Lankan elephant is native to Sri Lanka and one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. It is the type subspecies of the Asian elephant and was first described by Carl Linnaeus under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758. The Sri Lankan elephant population is now largely restricted to the dry zone in the north, east and southeast of Sri Lanka. Elephants are present in Udawalawe National Park, Yala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Wilpattu National Park and Minneriya National Park but also live outside protected areas. It is estimated that Sri Lanka has the highest density of elephants in Asia. Human-elephant conflict is increasing due to conversion of elephant habitat to settlements and permanent cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian elephant</span> Most widespread subspecies of Asian elephant

The Indian elephant is one of three extant recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, native to mainland Asia. The species is smaller than the African elephant species with a convex back and the highest body point on its head. The species exhibits significant sexual dimorphism with a male reaching an average shoulder height of about 3.2 m (10 ft) and weighing up to 5,400 kg (11,900 lb) whereas a female reaches an average shoulder height of about 2.54 m (8.3 ft) and weighs up to 4,160 kg (9,170 lb). It has a broader skull with a concave forehead, two large laterally folded ears and a large trunk. It has grey colored smooth skin with four large legs and a long tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borneo elephant</span> Subspecies of elephant

The Borneo elephant, also called the Bornean elephant or the Borneo pygmy elephant, is a subspecies of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) that inhabits northeastern Borneo, in Indonesia and Malaysia. Its origin remains the subject of debate. A definitive subspecific classification as Elephas maximus borneensis awaits a detailed range-wide morphometric and genetic study. In 2024, the Borneo elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. It is pre-eminently threatened by loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leuser Ecosystem</span>

The Leuser Ecosystem is an area of forest located in the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. Covering more than 2.6 million hectares it is one of the richest expanses of tropical rain forest in Southeast Asia and is the last place on earth where the Sumatran elephant, rhino, tiger and orangutan are found within one area. It has one of the world's richest yet least-known forest systems, and its vegetation is an important source of Earth's oxygen. Leuser also possesses more lowland rainforest than the rest of Sumatra combined and supports some of the last viable populations of tiger, rhino, orangutan and elephant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bukit Tigapuluh National Park</span> National park in Sumatra

Bukit Tigapuluh National Park - The Thirty Hills - is a 143,223-hectare National Park in eastern Sumatra, consisting primarily of tropical lowland forest, largely in Riau province, with a smaller part of 33,000 ha in Jambi province. It is famous as one of the last refuges of endangered species such as the Sumatran orangutan, Sumatran tiger, Sumatran elephant, and Asian tapir, as well as many endangered bird species. It forms part of the Tesso Nilo Complex biodiversity hotspot. The Park is inhabited by the indigenous peoples of the Orang Rimba and Talang Mamak tribes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Sumatra</span> Sixth largest island in world

The Indonesian island of Sumatra is the sixth largest island in the world. The rich ethnic diversity and historical heritage in Sumatra is reflected in the range of architectural styles in the island. The vernacular style is the native Sumatran ethnic groups architecture of dwellings, while the Hindu-Buddhist architecture reflected through the cultural historical heritage of candis built in Sumatra. The third wave is Islamic architecture adopted in mosques and palace in Sumatra, especially in Aceh, North Sumatra, and Malay cultural sphere in the island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javan elephant</span>

The Javan elephant was proposed by Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953, based on an illustration of a carving on the Buddhist monument of Borobudur in Java. He thought that the Asian elephant had indeed existed on the island and had gone extinct. It may be considered synonymous with the Sumatran elephant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giam Siak Kecil-Bukit Batu Bioreserve</span>

Giam Siak Kecil-Bukit Batu Bioreserve is a peatland area in Riau Province of Sumatra, covering 705,271 hectares (2,723.07 sq mi) and large parts of Bengkalis Regency and Siak Regency. It is a declared UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserve and supports a sustainable timber industry. It is home to two wildlife reserves, namely Giam Siak Wildlife Reserve and Bukit Batu Wildlife Reserve; flagship species include the Sumatran elephant and Sumatran tiger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran freshwater swamp forests</span> Ecoregion in Sumatra, Indonesia

The Sumatran freshwater swamp forests ecoregion covers disconnected patches of freshwater swamp forest on the alluvial plains of the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. The different locations vary greatly in their vegetation and wildlife habitat depending on the local soil types. The land has been greatly disturbed by human conversion to agriculture and illegal logging in recent years. Several of the sectors support significant populations of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)'.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Williams, C.; Tiwari, S.K.; Goswami, V.R.; de Silva, S.; Kumar, A.; Baskaran, N.; Yoganand, K. & Menon, V. (2020). "Elephas maximus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T7140A45818198. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T7140A45818198.en . Retrieved 3 April 2023.
  2. 1 2 Shoshani, J. (2005). "Subspecies Elephas maximus sumatranus". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 90. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  3. ↑ Shoshani, J., Eisenberg, J.F. (1982) Elephas maximus. Archived 2006-08-30 at the Wayback Machine Mammalian Species 182: 1–8
  4. ↑ Shoshani, J. (2006) Taxonomy, Classification, and Evolution of Elephants In: Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K. (eds.) Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   0813806763. Pp. 3–14
  5. 1 2 Hedges, S.; Tyson, M. J.; Sitompul, A. F.; Kinnaird, M. F.; Gunaryadi, D. & Aslan (2005). "Distribution, status, and conservation needs of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Lampung Province, Sumatra, Indonesia" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 124 (1): 35–48. Bibcode:2005BCons.124...35H. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.004.
  6. ↑ Soehartono, T., Susilo, H. D., Sitompul, A. F., Gunaryadi, D., Purastuti, E. M., Azmi, W., Fadhli, N., and Stremme, C. (2007). The strategic and action plan for Sumatran and Kalimantan elephant. Departemen Kehutanan, Jakarta.
  7. 1 2 Wilson, G.; Gray, R.J.; Radinal, R.; Hasanuddin, H.; Azmi, W.; Sayuti, A.; Muhammad, H.; Abdullah, A.; Nazamuddin, B.S.; Sofyan, H.; Riddle, H.S.; Stremme, C. & Desai, A.A.. (2021). "Between a rock and a hard place: rugged terrain features and human disturbance affect behaviour and habitat use of Sumatran elephants in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia". Biodiversity and Conservation. 30 (3): 597–618. Bibcode:2021BiCon..30..597W. doi:10.1007/s10531-020-02105-3. S2CID   234345462.
  8. ↑ Sukumar, R. & Santiapillai, C. (1993). "Asian elephant in Sumatra population and habitat viability analysis" (PDF). Gajah, Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group (11): 61.
  9. ↑ Puttipong, K., Clarke, B. (2002). Giants On Our Hands. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant 30: 253–254.
  10. ↑ Reilly, J. (2002). "Growth in the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) and age estimation based on dung diameter". Journal of Zoology. 258 (2): 205–213. doi:10.1017/S0952836902001322.
  11. ↑ "Land clearance drives Sumatran elephants closer to extinction". DW.COM. 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2019-10-05.
  12. ↑ Hedges, S., Tyson, M.J., Sitompul, A.F., Hammatt, H. (2006). Why Inter-country Loans Will Not Help Sumatra’s Elephants. Zoo Biology 25: 235–246.
  13. ↑ Erwin Z. (2015). "Ten Percent of Sumatran Elephant Killed in Three Years".
  14. ↑ Elephant Welfare: the Palm Oil problem, wildwelfare.org. Accessed 7 February 2024.
  15. ↑ WWF International - Sumatran elephant species profile, retrieved 7 November 2010
  16. ↑ Suprayogi, B., Sugardjito, J. and R. P. H. Lilley (2002). Management of Sumatran elephants in Indonesia: Problems and challenges. Pages 183–194 in: Baker, I.and M. Kashio (eds.) Giants on our Hands. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.