Borneo elephant

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Borneo elephant
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Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae
Genus: Elephas
Species:
E. maximus
Subspecies:
E. m. borneensis
Trinomial name
Elephas maximus borneensis

The Borneo elephant, also called the Bornean elephant or the Borneo pygmy elephant, is a subspecies of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) that inhabits northeastern Borneo, in Indonesia and Malaysia. Its origin remains the subject of debate. A definitive subspecific classification as Elephas maximus borneensis awaits a detailed range-wide morphometric and genetic study. Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. It is pre-eminently threatened by loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitat. [1]

Contents

The Sultan of Sulu was thought to have introduced captive elephants to Borneo in the 18th century, which were released into the jungle. [2] Comparison of the Borneo elephant population to putative source populations in DNA analysis indicates that the Borneo elephants more likely derived from Sundaic stock and are indigenous to Borneo, rather than having been introduced by humans. The genetic divergence of Borneo elephants warrants their recognition as a separate evolutionarily significant unit. [3]

Characteristics

A close-up of the face of an elephant near Kinabatangan River, Sukau, Sabah, Malaysia Pygmy Elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) female (8074074101).jpg
A close-up of the face of an elephant near Kinabatangan River, Sukau, Sabah, Malaysia

In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. [4]

It has become commonplace to refer to the Borneo elephant as a 'pygmy' subspecies, although adult elephants of Sabah of both genders are similar in height to their counterparts in Peninsular Malaysia. Five measurements of the skull of a fully adult female elephant from Gomantong Forest Reserve were slightly smaller (72–90%) than comparable dimensions averaged for two Sumatran skulls. Few available measurements show that they are of similar size to other populations of the Sunda subregion. [2]

Morphological measurements of fifteen captive elephants from Peninsular Malaysia and of six elephants from Sabah were taken between April 2005 and January 2006, and repeated three times for each elephant and averaged. There was no significant difference in any of the characters between the two captive populations. [5]

They are also remarkably tame and passive, another reason some scientists think they descended from a domestic collection. [3] [6]

Distribution and habitat

A female elephant with her calf near the Kinabatangan River Pygmy Elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis) mother and baby (8074148819).jpg
A female elephant with her calf near the Kinabatangan River

Elephants are confined to the northern and northeastern parts of Borneo. [7] In the 1980s, there were two distinct populations: One lived in Sabah, ranging over the Tabin Wildlife Reserve and adjacent mostly logged dipterocarp forest on steep terrain; the other inhabited the hilly interior at about 300 to 1,500 m (980 to 4,920 ft) altitude in dipterocarp forest, which was largely undisturbed at the time and only logged at its periphery. In Kalimantan, their range is restricted to a small contiguous area of the upper Sembakung River in the east. [8]

The range of wild elephants in Sabah and Kalimantan seems to have expanded very little in the past 100 years despite access to suitable habitat elsewhere on Borneo. Borneo's soil tends to be young, leached, and infertile, and there is speculation that the distribution of wild elephants on the island may be limited by the occurrence of natural mineral sources. [9]

In 1992, the estimated elephant population size in Sabah ranged from 500–2,000 individuals, based on survey work conducted in the Tabin Wildlife Reserve, in Lower Kinabatangan District and in the Deramakot Forest Reserve. An elephant population census was conducted in Sabah between July 2007 and December 2008, counting dung piles along 216 line transects in five main elephant managed ranges, covering a total distance of 186.12 km (115.65 mi). Results of this survey suggest an elephant population of 1,184–3,652 individuals inhabiting the ranges of Tabin, Lower Kinabatangan, North Kinabatangan, Ulu Kalumpang Forest Reserve and the central forest of Sabah. The elephant density and population size varied throughout the five key ranges affected by (i) conversion of lowland forest, (ii) fragmentation of habitat, and (iii) existing land use activities such as logging. The upper catchment of Ulu Segama Forest Reserve had the highest density of elephants with 3.69 elephants per 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi). Only the unprotected central forest area supported an elephant population of more than 1,000 individuals. [10]

In 2005, five female elephants were fitted with tracking devices to study their home range and movement patterns in Sabah. Results suggest that elephant herds occupied a minimum home range from 250 to 400 km2 (97 to 154 sq mi) in non-fragmented forest, while in fragmented forest habitat, the annual home range for elephants is estimated to be around 600 km2 (230 sq mi). [11]

Threats

The pre-eminent threats to the Asian elephant today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Hundreds of people and elephants are killed annually as a result of such conflicts. [12]

Expanding human development disrupts their migration routes, depletes their food sources, and destroys their habitat. [13]

Another threat is insufficient forestation or a lack of trees due to logging. Borneo elephants need 100–225 litres (22–49 imp gal; 26–59 US gal) of water a day and if it is harder to find because of climatic conditions or cutting their resource of water, their only option is to migrate to where they can find that resource to survive. [14]

As of April 2012, an estimated 20–80 elephants range near 22 villages in the Sebuku subdistrict of Nunukan, North Kalimantan. [15]

Conservation

Herd Borneoelephants.jpg
Herd

Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I. [1] The genetic distinctiveness of Borneo elephants makes them one of the highest priority populations for Asian elephant conservation. [3]

In Malaysia, the Borneo elephants are protected under schedule II of the Wildlife Conservation Enactment. Any person found guilty of hunting elephants is liable on conviction to a fine of $RM 50,000 or five years imprisonment or both. [9]

The Oregon Zoo in Portland has the only Borneo elephant in the United States, a rescued female by the name of Chendra. She was found wandering alone near a palm oil plantation. She had wounds on her front legs and her left eye from gunshots. She was ultimately left blind in that eye. Malaysian wildlife officials worked to find her a home, and she was brought to the Oregon Zoo on November 20, 1999. [16]

In 2016, a rescued Borneo elephant in a Japanese zoo caught tuberculosis. Although the elephant later recovered, conservationists still do not know how the elephant was infected. Research on the matter is ongoing. [17]

Taxonomic history

It has not been resolved whether Borneo elephants are indigenous or have descended from captive elephants presented to the Sultan of Sulu in 1750 by the East India Company and later set free in northern Borneo. [8]

In the 19th century, a zoological exploration established that wild elephants occurred naturally in a restricted region of northeastern Borneo. The status and taxonomic distinctiveness of the Borneo elephants has been controversial since then. In 1940, Frederick Nutter Chasen considered Bornean elephants as descendants of an introduced stock, and placed them in the subspecies Elephas maximus indicus . Reginald Innes Pocock having studied specimens in the British Museum of Natural History disagreed in 1943, and placed all Sundaic elephants in the subspecies Elephas maximus sumatrensis . In 1950, Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described a subspecies Elephas maximus borneensis, taking as his type an illustration in the National Geographical Magazine. [2]

In 2003, the debate was re-opened by a suggestion that the introduced Sulu elephants and the northeastern Borneo population might have descended from the now-extinct Javan elephant, which was named Elephas maximus sondaicus by Deraniyagala. This hypothesis is based on missing archaeological evidence of long-term elephant habitation in Borneo, a corroboration in folklore and that elephants have not colonized the entire island of Borneo. [18]

In 2003, mitochondrial DNA analysis and microsatellite data indicated that the extant population is derived from Sundaic stock, but has undergone independent local evolution for some 300,000 years since a postulated Pleistocene colonization, and possibly became isolated from other Asian elephant populations when land bridges that linked Borneo with the other Sunda Islands and the Asian mainland disappeared after the Last Glacial Maximum 18,000 years ago. [3]

History

Elephants were appropriate gifts from one ruler to another, or to a person of high standing, and it was customary to transport them by sea. In about 1395, the Raja of Java gave two elephants to the ruler Raja Baginda of Sulu. These animals were reputedly the founders of a feral population at the western end of Borneo. When in 1521 the remnants of Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the Earth reached Brunei, the chronicler of the voyage recounted that the delegation from the flagship Victoria was conveyed to and from the ruler's palace on elephants caparisoned in silk. This custom had been discontinued by the time later visitors arrived in Brunei in the 1770s, who reported wild-living elephant herds that were hunted by local people after harvest. Despite the early records of royal elephants in Brunei and Banjarmasin, there was no tradition of capturing and taming local wild elephants in Borneo. [2]

The arrival of elephants in the northern Kalimantan region of Borneo coincides with the rule of the Sultans of Sulu over Sabah. The Sultanate of Sulu enjoyed peaceful ties with the Hindu Empire of Java. As a token of appreciation, the rulers of Java sent their elephants to Sulu, much as they had sent Javan elephants to the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which also partly gives the reason why skeletal remains of small elephants are found in Mindanao, south Philippines. The Sultan of Sulu and his family shipped some of their prized Javan elephants to northeast Borneo due to lack of land and for the elephants to help in hauling logs out of the forest to create fast and long ships. When this lease was signed, most of these timid and largely domesticated small elephants under the employ of Sulu's shipbuilders and traders were released into the forests so they could live deep inside the jungle away from any feuding sultan who might use them for war. This single act of releasing the pachyderms to the wild made the Bolkiah family of Sulu and their allies the savior of what remaining elephants are left, old locals attest. [19]

In a study, they compared DNA and diversity to Asian elephant populations, and later came to the conclusion that Borneo elephants split from other Elepha subspecies about 300,000 years ago. They confirmed that Borneo elephants have low genetic diversity but followed a Pleistocene colonization. [20]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borneo</span> Island in Southeast Asia

Borneo is the third-largest island in the world, with an area of 748,168 km2 (288,869 sq mi). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda Islands, located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bay cat</span> Small wild cat

The bay cat, also known as the Bornean bay cat, is a small wild cat endemic to the island of Borneo that appears to be relatively rare compared to sympatric wild cats, based on the paucity of historical, as well as recent records. Since 2002, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List because it is estimated that fewer than 2,500 mature individuals exist, and that the population declined in the past. The bay cat has been recorded as rare and seems to occur at relatively low density, even in pristine habitat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian elephant</span> Species of mammal in the family Elephantidae

The Asian elephant, also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living species of the genus Elephas and is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, Nepal in the north, Sumatra in the south, and to Borneo in the east. Three subspecies are recognised—E. m. maximus from Sri Lanka, E. m. indicus from mainland Asia and E. m. sumatranus from the island of Sumatra. Formerly, there was also the Syrian elephant or Western Asiatic elephant which was the westernmost population of the Asian elephant. This subspecies became extinct in ancient times. Skeletal remains of E. m. asurus have been recorded from the Middle East: Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey from periods dating between at least 1800 BC and likely 700 BC. It is one of only three living species of elephants or elephantids anywhere in the world, the others being the African bush elephant and African forest elephant. It is the second largest species of elephant after the African bush elephant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran rhinoceros</span> Critically Endangered species of small Asian rhinoceros

The Sumatran rhinoceros, also known as the Sumatran rhino, hairy rhinoceros or Asian two-horned rhinoceros, is a rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant species of rhinoceros; it is the only extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus. It is the smallest rhinoceros, although it is still a large mammal; it stands 112–145 cm (44–57 in) high at the shoulder, with a head-and-body length of 2.36–3.18 m and a tail of 35–70 cm (14–28 in). The weight is reported to range from 500–1,000 kg (1,100–2,200 lb), averaging 700–800 kg (1,540–1,760 lb). Like both African species, it has two horns; the larger is the nasal horn, typically 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in), while the other horn is typically a stub. A coat of reddish-brown hair covers most of the Sumatran rhino's body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sun bear</span> Bear from tropical forests of Southeast Asia

The sun bear is a species in the family Ursidae occurring in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. It is the smallest bear species, standing nearly 70 cm (28 in) at the shoulder and weighing 25–65 kg (55–143 lb). It is stockily built, with large paws, strongly curved claws, small, rounded ears and a short snout. The fur is generally short and jet black, but can vary from grey to red. The sun bear gets its name from its characteristic orange to cream-coloured chest patch. Its unique morphology—inward-turned front feet, flattened chest, powerful forelimbs with large claws—suggests adaptations for climbing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kinabatangan River</span> River in Sabah, Malaysia

The Kinabatangan River is a river in Sandakan Division, in northeastern Sabah, Malaysia. It is the second longest river in Malaysia, with a length of 560 km (350 mi) from its headwaters in the mountains of southwest Sabah to its outlet at the Sulu Sea, east of Sandakan. The area is known for its high biodiversity, including its limestone caves at Gomantong Hill, dryland dipterocarp forests, riverine forest, freshwater swamp forest, oxbow lakes, and salty mangrove swamps near the coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tabin Wildlife Reserve</span>

The Tabin Wildlife Reserve is a nature preserve in Sabah, Malaysia. It was created in 1984 to preserve Sabah's disappearing wild animals. Occupying a large part of the peninsula forming the northern headland of Darvel Bay, it is located 48 kilometres east of Lahad Datu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran elephant</span> Subspecies of mammal

The Sumatran elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to the Indonesian island of Sumatra. In 2011, IUCN upgraded the conservation status of the Sumatran elephant from endangered to critically endangered in its Red List as the population had declined by at least 80% during the past three generations, estimated to be about 75 years. The subspecies is preeminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, and poaching; over 69% of potential elephant habitat has been lost within the last 25 years. Much of the remaining forest cover is in blocks smaller than 250 km2 (97 sq mi), which are too small to contain viable elephant populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bornean ferret badger</span> Species of carnivore

The Bornean ferret badger, also known as Everett's ferret badger or the Kinabalu ferret badger, is a small, nocturnal and omnivorous mammal that is endemic to the island of Borneo. It is a member of the family Mustelidae and is one of six species of the genus Melogale. It is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to its small distribution range, which includes Kinabalu National Park and Crocker Range National Park.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Lankan elephant</span> Subspecies of the Asian elephant

The Sri Lankan elephant is native to Sri Lanka and one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. It is the type subspecies of the Asian elephant and was first described by Carl Linnaeus under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758. The Sri Lankan elephant population is now largely restricted to the dry zone in the north, east and southeast of Sri Lanka. Elephants are present in Udawalawe National Park, Yala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Wilpattu National Park and Minneriya National Park but also live outside protected areas. It is estimated that Sri Lanka has the highest density of elephants in Asia. Human-elephant conflict is increasing due to conversion of elephant habitat to settlements and permanent cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Danum Valley Conservation Area</span> Protected area in Sabah, Malaysia

Danum Valley Conservation Area is a 438 square kilometres tract of relatively undisturbed lowland dipterocarp forest in Sabah, Malaysia. It has an extensive diversity of tropical flora and fauna, including such species as the rare Bornean orangutans, gibbons, mousedeer, clouded leopards and over 270 bird species. Activities offered are jungle treks, river swimming, bird watching, night jungle tours and excursions to nearby logging sites and timber mills.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian elephant</span> Most widespread subspecies of Asian elephant

The Indian elephant is one of three extant recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant and native to mainland Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bornean orangutan</span> Species of ape

The Bornean orangutan is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli orangutan, it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. It is the largest of the three species of orangutans. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans. Also called mias by the local population, the Bornean orangutan is a critically endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunda clouded leopard</span> Species of carnivore

The Sunda clouded leopard is a medium-sized wild cat native to Borneo and Sumatra. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2015, as the total effective population probably consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend. On both Sunda Islands, it is threatened by deforestation. It was classified as a separate species, distinct from the clouded leopard in mainland Southeast Asia based on a study in 2006. Its fur is darker with a smaller cloud pattern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bornean clouded leopard</span> Subspecies of Sunda clouded leopard

The Bornean clouded leopard is a subspecies of the Sunda clouded leopard. It is native to the island of Borneo, and differs from the Batu-Sumatran clouded leopard in the shape and frequency of spots, as well as in cranio-mandibular and dental characters. In 2017, the Cat Classification Taskforce of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the validity of this subspecies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borneo lowland rain forests</span> Ecoregion in Borneo

The Borneo lowland rain forests is an ecoregion, within the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, of the large island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. It supports approximately 15,000 plant species, 380 bird species and several mammal species. The Borneo lowland rain forests is diminishing due to logging, hunting and conversion to commercial land use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javan elephant</span>

The Javan elephant was proposed by Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953, based on an illustration of a carving on the Buddhist monument of Borobudur in Java. He thought that the Asian elephant had indeed existed on the island and had gone extinct. It may be considered synonymous with the Sumatran elephant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bornean rhinoceros</span> Subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros

The Bornean rhinoceros, also known as the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros or eastern hairy rhinoceros, is one of three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros. The subspecies may be functionally extinct, with only one individual, a female named Pahu, surviving in captivity, and held in the state of Sabah. In April 2015, the Malaysian government declared the Bornean rhinoceros to be extinct in the wild in the Malaysian portion of Borneo. However, in March 2016, a young female rhino was captured in East Kalimantan, providing evidence of their continued existence. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the subspecies as critically endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunda leopard cat</span> Small wild cat

The Sunda leopard cat is a small wild cat species native to the Sundaland islands of Java, Bali, Borneo, Sumatra and the Philippines that is considered distinct from the leopard cat occurring in mainland South and Southeast Asia.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 Cranbrook, E.; Payne, J.; Leh, C.M.U. (2008). "Origin of the elephants Elephas maximus L. of Borneo" (PDF). Sarawak Museum Journal.
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  4. ↑ Shoshani, J.; Eisenberg, J.F. (1982). "Elephas maximus" (PDF). Mammalian Species (182): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3504045. JSTOR   3504045. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 August 2006.
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  8. 1 2 Sukumar, R. (1993). The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management (Second ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   052143758X – via Google Books.
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  10. ↑ Alfred, R.; Ahmad, A. H.; Payne, J.; William, C.; Ambu, L. (2010). "Density and population estimation of the Bornean elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis) in Sabah" (PDF). Online Journal of Biological Sciences. 10 (2): 92–102. doi: 10.3844/ojbsci.2010.92.102 .
  11. ↑ Alfred, R.; Ahmad, A.H.; Payne, J.; Williams, C.; Ambu, L. N.; How, P. M.; Goossens, B. (2012). "Home Range and Ranging Behaviour of Bornean Elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) Females". PLOS ONE. 7 (2): e31400. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731400A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031400 . PMC   3275559 . PMID   22347469.
  12. ↑ Leimgruber, P.; Gagnon, J.B.; Wemmer, C.M.; Kelly, D.S.; Songer, M.A.; Selig, E.R. (2003). "Fragmentation of Asia's remaining wildlands: Implications for Asian elephant conservation". Animal Conservation. 6 (4): 347–359. doi:10.1017/S1367943003003421. S2CID   26206968.
  13. ↑ Fernando P.; Vidya T. N. C.; Payne J.; Stuewe M.; Davison G.; et al. (2003). "Borneo Elephants: A High Priority for Conservation". PLOS Biology. 1 (1): e7. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000007 . PMC   176547 .
  14. ↑ Alfred, R., Ahmad, A. H., Payne, J., Williams, C., Ambu, L. N., How, P. M., & Goossens, B. (2012). Home range and ranging behaviour of Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) females. PLOS ONE, 7(2), e31400–e31400
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  18. ↑ Shim, P.S. (2003). "Another look at the Borneo elephant". Sabah Society Journal. 20: 7–14.
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  20. ↑ Ishige, T., Miya, M., Ushio, M., Sado, T., Ushioda, M., Maebashi, K., Yonechi, R., Lagan, P., & Matsubayashi, H. (2017). Tropical-forest mammals as detected by environmental DNA at natural saltlicks in Borneo. Biological Conservation, 210, 281–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.04.023
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