Traditional Korean medicine [n 1] (known in North Korea as Koryo medicine) refers to the forms of traditional medicine practiced in Korea.
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Traditional Korean medicine [n 1] (known in North Korea as Koryo medicine) refers to the forms of traditional medicine practiced in Korea.
Korean medicine traditions originated in ancient and prehistoric times and can be traced back as far as 3000 BCE when stone and bone needles were found in North Hamgyong Province, in present-day North Korea. [2] [3] In Gojoseon, where the founding myth of Korea is recorded, there is a story of a tiger and a bear who wanted to reincarnate in human form and who ate wormwood and garlic. In Jewang Ungi (제왕운기), which was written around the time of Samguk Yusa, wormwood and garlic are described as 'edible medicine', showing that, even in times when incantatory medicine was the mainstream, medicinal herbs were given as curatives in Korea. Medicinal herbs at this time were used as remedial treatment such as easing the pain or tending injury, along with knowing what foods were good for health. In the period of the Three Kingdoms, traditional Korean medicine was mainly influenced by other traditional medicines such as ancient Chinese medicine. There was important trade with foreign countries during the period of the Three Kingdoms. [4] “In particular, medical knowledge from China and India supplemented the foundation of traditional medicine that had been handed down from the Old Joseon period." [4] In Korea, this has “spurred further developments." [4]
Medicine flourished in the period of the Joseon. For example, the first training system of nurses was instituted under King Taejong (1400–1418), while under the reign of King Sejong the Great (1418–1450) measures were adopted to promote the development of a variety of Korean medicinal ingredients. [5] These efforts were systematized and published in the Hyangyak Jipseongbang (향약집성방, 1433), which was completed and included 703 Korean native medicines, providing an impetus to break away from dependence on Chinese medicine. [6] The medical encyclopaedia named Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions (醫方類聚, 의방유취), which included many classics from traditional chinese medicine, written by Kim Ye-mong (金禮蒙, 김예몽) and other Korean official doctors from 1443 to 1445, was regarded as one of the greatest medical texts of the 15th century. [6] It included more than 50,000 prescriptions and incorporated 153 different Korean and Chinese texts, [6] including the Concise Prescriptions of Royal Doctors (御醫撮要方, 어의촬요방) which was written by Choi Chong-jun (崔宗峻, 최종준) in 1226. Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions has very important research value, because it keeps the contents of many ancient Korean and Chinese medical books that had been lost for a long time. [7]
After this, many books on medical specialties were published. There are three physicians from the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) who are generally credited with further development of traditional Korean medicine—Heo Jun, Saam, and Yi Je-ma. After the Japanese invasion in 1592, Dongeui Bogam (동의보감) was written by Heo Jun, the first of the major physicians. This work further integrated the Korean and Chinese medicine of its time and was influential to Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese medicine. In the late period of Joseon, Yi Je-ma's “unique system of constitutional medicine” illustrates the “nature of” the medicine that has been traditionally developed in Korea by example. [4] Medical treatments were based upon yin and yang principles “and the five elements." [4] A warm treatment would treat a person who is a yin. [4] On the other hand, a cold treatment would treat a person who is a yang. [4]
The next major influence to traditional Korean medicine is related to Sasang typology (사상의학). Yi Je-ma and his book, The Principal of Life Preservation in Oriental Medicine (東醫壽世保元, 동의수세보원) systematically theorized with the influence of Korean Confucianism and his clinical experiences in Korea. Yi Je-ma said that even if patients suffer the same illness, patients need to use different herbal applications to treat the same illness due to the pathophysiologies of individuals. He stresses that the health of human body had a close relationship with the state of mind. He believed that the human mind and body were not separate and they closely reflected each other, and the aspect of mind needed to be considered when examining the causes of disease. Thus, not only food and natural environment but also emotional changes in humans can be another major reason for illness. He believed that medical diagnosis and treatment should be based on person's typology rather than on symptoms alone and each person should be given different prescriptions depending on the constitution of the individual. [8] Sasang typology (사상의학) focuses on the individual patients based on different reactions to disease and herbs. Treat illness by the treatment of the root cause through proper diagnosis. Key to this diagnosis is to first determine the internal organs or pathophysiology of each patient. [9]
The next recognized individual is Saam, a priest-physician who is believed to have lived during the 16th century. Although there is much unknown about Saam, including his real name and date of birth, it is recorded that he studied under the famous monk Samyang. He developed a system of acupuncture that employs the five element theory.
In the late Joseon dynasty, positivism was widespread. Clinical evidence was used more commonly as the basis for studying disease and developing cures. Scholars who had turned away from politics devoted themselves to treating diseases and, in consequence, new schools of traditional medicine were established. Simple books on medicine for the common people were published.
Yi Je-ma classified human beings into four main types, based on the emotion that dominated their personality and developed treatments for each type:
The Japanese took control of Korea, which made the Korean traditional medicine fall on difficult times. [4] Colonial rule of the Japanese started since 1910. [4] The continuance of developing Korean medicine was suspended for 40 years due to the Japanese rule. [4] Academic research of this medicine was suspended as well. [4] The suppression lasted until 1945, when Korea was freed from the Japanese rule. [4] In 1951, the enactment of the National Medical Treatment Law established an organized framework for skillful practitioners who use the medicine that has been traditionally developed to treat patients. [4] Koreans and their government supported this medicine. [4] In 1970s, Korean traditional medicine including acupuncture was generally acknowledged by healthcare clinics because of its value. [4]
Originally, Korean traditional medicine was called “medicine of symptoms." [10] “Principles of traditional medicine call for an assessment of eight symptoms." [10] These symptoms are categorized “into four pairs: cold/hot, deficiency/sufficiency, large/small, and yin/yang." [10] Korean traditional medicine is ineffective when used alone in some situations. [10] The medicine from the West can be used with Korean medicine, which is more effective. [10] In Korea, this widespread practice occurs for a long time. [10] Currently, Korean Traditional Medicine is under challenges to undergo scientific examinations such as clinical trials to counter growing distrust. [11] The meme '한무당'(Hanmudang), a neologism that relates Korean Traditional Medicine to shamanism has become too prevalent among young generations that there the association of Korean Traditional Medicine Protectionists had to take measures to stop the meme from auto-completing in internet searches. [12]
In general, the history of Korean medicine can be divided into five periods. The first period, up to about the 12th century, was one of the alleged dark ages of Korean medicine, with TKM based primarily on folk tradition and some foreign (mostly Chinese) elements. In the second period, the 13th to 15th centuries, Hyangyak medicine, which emphasized the use of domestic herbs, emerged. Hyangyak medicine is a type of TKM that prescribed only Hyangyak. [13] This local focus was crucial during times of war, when access to foreign medicinal supplies was limited. The third period, the 15th to early 17th centuries, was marked by the creation of the great medical texts such as Hyangyak Jipseongbang, which combined indigenous and foreign knowledge to form a complete system of Korean medicine.
In the 17th to 19th centuries, TKM became more independent with the publication of the Principles and Practice of Eastern Medicine (東醫寶鑑, 동의보감, Dongui Bogam ) in 1613, a seminal text that solidified TKM as distinct from TCM. The fifth period, roughly the 20th and 21st centuries, required a great deal of adjustment to TKM to modern medical research, yet retained TKM. This period is the time of Korea trying to incorporate KM into the national health care system and at the same time dealing with modernization and globalization.
To sum up, the growth of Korean Medicine reveals how traditional wisdom can evolve when faced with external factors or contemporary demands. Synthesis of TKM with modern science traces TKM’s evolution from folk herbal medicine to integration with scientific research, albeit with a cultural dilemma of retaining the past while modernizing. Such progression provides insights into the durability and applicability of traditional systems in the contemporary world.
The most common applications of Korean traditional medicine are acupuncture, herbal medicine, and moxibustion. [10] They describe a combination of natural and medical sciences research. [10] In Korea, adherents of the medicine that has been traditionally developed advise that acupuncture comes first. [10] Moxibustion comes second and herbal medicine comes third. [10] Depending on physical state and particular condition of the individual, these practices can be prescribed in separate ways. [10]
Herbalism is the study and practice of using plant material for the purpose of food, medicine, or health. They may be flowers, plants, shrubs, trees, moss, lichen, fern, algae, seaweed or fungus. The plant may be used in its entirety or with only specific parts.
Herbal medicines may be presented in many forms including fresh, dried, whole, or chopped. Herbs may be prepared as infusions when an herb is soaked in a liquid or decocted—simmered in water over low heat for a certain period. Some examples of infusion are chamomile or peppermint, using flowers, leaves and powdered herbs. Decocting examples may be rose hips, cinnamon bark, and licorice root consisting of fruits, seeds, barks, and roots. Fresh and dried herbs can be tinctured where herbs are kept in alcohol or contained in a vinegar extract. They can be preserved as syrups such as glycerites in vegetable glycerin or put in honey known as miels.
Non-oral herbal uses consist of creams, baths, oils, ointments, gels, distilled waters, washes, poultices, compresses, snuffs, steams, inhaled smoke and aromatics volatile oils.
Many herbalists consider the patient's direct involvement to be critical. These methods are delivered differently depending on the herbal traditions of each area. Nature is not necessarily safe; special attention should be used when grading quality, deciding a dosage, realizing possible effects, and any interactions with herbal medications. [14]
An example of herbal medicine is the use of medicinal mushrooms as a food and as a tea. A notable mushroom used in traditional Korean medicine is Phellinus linteus , also known as Song-gen.
Another example of herbal medicine is cheongsimhwan (Korean : 청심환, lit. 'clear-mind pill'), a pill formulated with thirty odd herbs and other medicinal ingredients, including calculus bovis , ginseng, musk, and Chinese yam root. [15]
Acupuncture is used to withdraw blood or stimulate certain points on humans and animals by inserting them on specific pressure points of the body. Traditional acupuncture involves the belief that a "life force" ( qi ) circulates within the body in lines called meridians. [16] Scientific investigation has not found any histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as qi , meridians, and acupuncture points, [n 2] [21] and many modern practitioners no longer support the existence of life force energy (qi) flowing through meridians, which was a major part of early belief systems. [22] [23] [24] Pressure points can be stimulated through a mixture of methods ranging from the insertion and withdrawal of very small needles to the use of heat, known as moxibustion. Pressure points can also be stimulated by laser, massage, and electrical means. [25] : 234 Constitutional acupuncture, medicinal acupuncture, Sa-am acupuncture, and single-needle acupuncture are unique methods of acupuncture. [10]
Moxibustion is a technique in which heat is applied to the body with a stick or a cone of burning mugwort. The tool is placed over the affected area without burning the skin. The cone or stick can also be placed over a pressure point to stimulate and strengthen the blood. [26]
A Cochrane Review found moderate certainty evidence for the use of moxibustion plus usual care for reducing the chance of breech presentation of babies but uncertainty about the need for ECV. [27] Moxibustion has also been studied for the treatment of pain, [28] cancer, [29] stroke, [30] ulcerative colitis, [31] constipation, [32] and hypertension. [33] Systematic reviews of moxibustion show that there is a need for further research about these other therapeutic applications to reduce risk of publication bias. [34]
The South Korean government established a national school of traditional Korean medicine to establish its national treasure on a solid basis after the closing of the first modern educational facility (Dong-Je medical school) one hundred years ago by the Japanese invasion.
In 2008, the School of Korean Medicine was established inside Pusan National University with the 50 undergraduate students on the Yangsan medical campus. The new affiliated Korean Medical Hospital and Research Center for Clinical Studies are under construction.
Compared with common private traditional medicine undergraduate schools (6 years), this is a special graduate school (4+4).
Koryo medicine is a form of traditional medicine used in North Korea and promoted by the North Korean government, providing half of the reported healthcare in the country. [35] It is largely practised in the General Hospital of Koryo Medicine, Pyongyang. [36] Examples of Koryo medicine sold commercially are Kumdang-2 and Royal Blood-Fresh, sold by the Pugang Pharmaceutic Company, both of which are popular with Chinese tourists to North Korea. [37]
According to Han (1997), Christian missionaries introduced Western medicine to Korea in the late 19th century. It was the time when there was an increased exposure to Western influences and imperialist pressures in Korea, which led to a rapid adoption of Western medical practices. During the Japanese colonial period, the suppression of Hanbang reinforced its decline, and it was treated as secondary and behind Western medicine. However, the late 20th century witnessed a revival of Hanbang, and there was a growing nationalistic sentiment and affluence at that period. [38]
The primary criticism of the integration of Western medicine into Korean society is its impact on accessibility because the benefits of medical development were mostly available to urban and wealthier parts of the population. This inequality was intensified by the commercialisation of healthcare, where both Western and traditional medicines were marketed aggressively, often prioritising profit over patient care. Furthermore, the overshadowing of traditional practices by Western medicine led to the marginalisation of Korean identity and culture. Despite this criticism, there have been undeniable advancements in public health, including better disease control and medical technologies that have significantly improved the quality of life. Additionally, the establishment of medical schools and training programs has professionalised and standardised healthcare, thus elevating the overall health condition of the nation.
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientific knowledge, and it has been characterized as quackery.
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence of effectiveness or logical mechanism of action.
Acupressure is an alternative medicine technique often used in conjunction with acupuncture or reflexology. It is based on the concept of life energy (qi), which purportedly flows through "meridians" in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to acupuncture points, or ashi trigger points, with the aim of clearing blockages in these meridians. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of acupuncture points, meridians, or qi.
Moxibustion is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy which consists of burning dried mugwort on particular points on the body. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia. Suppliers usually age the mugwort and grind it up to a fluff; practitioners burn the fluff or process it further into a cigar-shaped stick. They can use it indirectly, with acupuncture needles, or burn it on the patient's skin.
Chinese herbology is the theory of traditional Chinese herbal therapy, which accounts for the majority of treatments in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). A Nature editorial described TCM as "fraught with pseudoscience", and said that the most obvious reason why it has not delivered many cures is that the majority of its treatments have no logical mechanism of action.
Tui na is a form of alternative medicine similar to shiatsu. As a branch of traditional Chinese medicine, it is often used in conjunction with acupuncture, moxibustion, fire cupping, Chinese herbalism, tai chi or other Chinese internal martial arts, and qigong.
Cupping therapy is a form of pseudoscience in which a local suction is created on the skin with the application of heated cups. As alternative medicine it is practiced primarily in Asia but also in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America. There is no conclusive evidence supporting the claimed health benefits of cupping, and critics have characterized the practice as quackery.
The meridian system is a pseudoscientific concept from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that alleges meridians are paths through which the life-energy known as "qi" (ch'i) flows.
The Sasang constitutional medicine or Sasang typology is a typological constitution medicine of Traditional Korean medicine. It was systematized by Yi Je-ma in his book Dongyi Suse Bowon: Longevity and Life Preservation in Eastern Medicine in 1894. It divides people into four body types based on their biopsychosocial traits. The classification was derived from the five body types of Traditional Chinese medicine described in an ancient Chinese medical book Lingshu Jing of Huangdi Neijing.
Kampo or Kanpō medicine, often known simply as Kanpō, is the study of traditional Japanese medicine in Japan following its introduction, beginning in the 7th century. It was adapted and modified to suit Japanese culture and traditions. Traditional Japanese medicine uses most of the Chinese methods, including acupuncture, moxibustion, traditional Chinese herbology, and traditional food therapy.
The Dongui Bogam is a Korean book compiled by the royal physician, Heo Jun and was first published in 1613 during the Joseon period of Korea.
Mugwort is a common name for several species of aromatic flowering plants in the genus Artemisia. In Europe, mugwort most often refers to the species Artemisia vulgaris, or common mugwort. In East Asia the species Artemisia argyi is often called "Chinese mugwort" in the context of traditional Chinese medicine, Ngai Chou in Cantonese or àicǎo (艾草) for the whole plant in Mandarin, and àiyè (艾叶) for the leaf, which is used specifically in the practice of moxibustion. Artemisia princeps is a mugwort known in Korea as ssuk (쑥) and in Japan as yomogi (ヨモギ). While other species are sometimes referred to by more specific common names, they may be called simply "mugwort" in many contexts.
Veterinary acupuncture is a form of traditional Chinese medicine and a pseudoscientific practice of performing acupuncture on animals. The best studies of the effects of animal acupuncture have produced consistently negative results.
Blood stasis (BS) is a concept in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), described as a slowing or pooling of the blood due to a disruption of heart qi. Blood stasis is also described by practitioners of TCM in terms of yin deficiency, qi deficiency and qi stagnation. For non-practitioners of TCM it is sometimes explained in terms of hematological disorders such as hemorrhage, congestion, thrombosis or local ischemia, and in terms of tissue changes. TCM practitioners believe it is an important underlying pathology of many disease processes despite the fact that objective, consistent methods for measuring the presence of blood stasis syndrome are not readily available. Blood stasis is associated with justifications for acupuncture and herbal treatments.
Artemisia princeps, also commonly called yomogi, Japanese mugwort, Korean wormwood, Korean mugwort or wormwood in English, is an Asian plant species in the sunflower family, native to China, Japan and Korea. It is a perennial, very vigorous plant that grows to 1.2 meters. This species spreads rapidly by means of underground stolons and can become invasive. It bears small, buff-colored flowers from July to November which are hermaphroditic, and pollinated by wind. The leaves are feather shaped, scalloped and light green, with white dense fuzz on the underside.
Yakchim (Korean: 약침) is one of the many treatments in traditional Korean medicine treatment. It is also called pharmacopuncture, Korean herb acupuncture and acupuncture with medicinal herbs.
Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial is a 2008 book by Simon Singh and Edzard Ernst. The book evaluates the scientific evidence for alternative medicines such as acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal medicine, and chiropractic, and briefly covers 36 other treatments. It finds that the scientific evidence for these alternative treatments is generally lacking. The authors concluded that homeopathy is merely a placebo.
Artemisia argyi, commonly known as silvery wormwood or Chinese mugwort, is a herbaceous perennial plant with a creeping rhizome. It is native to China, Korea, Mongolia, Japan, and the Russian Far East. It is known in Chinese as àicǎo or ài yè or ài hao, in Japanese as Chōsen yomogi and in Korean as Hwanghae ssuk. It is used in herbal medicine for conditions of the liver, spleen and kidney.
Bian stones are pointed stones that were historically used in traditional Chinese medicine. They are generally considered to be a precursor to acupuncture, utilizing heated pointed stones rather than acupuncture needles in the treatment of back and neck pain. The stones are made from a variety of materials found along the river Si region of Shandong, China.
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