Western school whiting

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Western school whiting
Sillago vittata2.PNG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Spariformes
Family: Sillaginidae
Genus: Sillago
Species:
S. vittata
Binomial name
Sillago vittata
McKay, 1985
S. vittata distribution map.PNG
Range of the western school whiting

The western school whiting (Sillago vittata), also known as the banded whiting, golden whiting and bastard whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is one of three 'school whiting' that inhabit southern Australia and share a very similar appearance. Western school whiting are known to grow to 30 cm in length and 275 g in weight, although unconfirmed reports suggest this might be an underestimate. The western school whiting is distributed along the Western Australian coast from Maud Landing in the north to Rottnest Island in the south. The species inhabits both shallow inshore environments and waters to depths of 55 m. The species is a benthic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms, and shows a change in diet with age and habitat. S. vittata is a multiple spawner, reproducing between December and February once it has reached one or two years of age. Juveniles inhabit protected inshore waters, moving offshore once they reach sexual maturity. It is often found in association with other sillaginids and comprises a minor fraction of commercial whiting catches in Western Australia.

Contents

Taxonomy and naming

The western school whiting is one of over 30 species in the genus Sillago , [1] which is one of five genera belonging to the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae, this family was previously considered to be part of the Percoidea, a suborder of the Perciformes. [2] The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies the Sillaginidae in the order Spariformes. [3]

The western school whiting was first scientifically described by Roland McKay in 1985, who was the first to recognize it apart from Sillago bassensis . McKay designated a specimen caught off north east Rottnest Island to be the holotype, [4] also designating several paratypes. [2] The species is commonly referred to as the 'western school whiting' in Australian literature, causing confusion with Sillago bassensis, which was previously given this name before S. vittata was described. It is also known as the 'banded whiting' and 'golden whiting' [5] in reference to its colouring, as well as the 'bastard whiting' by fishermen. The specific name, vittata is derived from the Latin 'vittatus', meaning 'banded'. [2]

Description

The western school whiting is similar in appearance to a number of geographically overlapping sillaginids, with colouring and swimbladder morphology the best identification features. The species is known to reach a maximum length of 30 cm and 275 g, [6] although unconfirmed reports from Shark Bay indicate they may grow significantly larger. [2] The external morphology is similar to all sillaginids, having a fairly straight ventral profile and a slightly curved dorsal profile. The dorsal fin is composed of two sections, the first consisting of 11 spines, while the second, longer dorsal has a single spine followed by 17 to 19 soft rays posteriorally. [7] The anal fin has two spines and is followed by 16 to 18 soft rays. The scales are ctenoid in nature except for the cheek scales, of which there are 3 rows, the upper being cycloid and the lower 2 ctenoid. There are 65 to 70 lateral line scales and 32 to 34 vertebrae in total. [7]

The swimbladder is very similar to S. bassensis and S. robusta , with a median anterior extension and very poorly developed anterolateral projections. The posterior median projection is short and a duct like process connects to the ventral surface of the swimbladder. [2]

The western school whiting's head and upper body are tan above, becoming paler below with a silvery white belly surface. In life blue, mauve and yellow reflections are common. In larger, albeit unconfirmed, specimens taken at Shark Bay the colour was a golden yellow shade all over, still having the species characteristic banding. [2] There 8 to 11 of these rusty brown to dark brown bars running obliquely on the sides of the fish, often overlapping a distinct silvery white laterally positioned band. [6] This band begins behind the operculum and continues to the caudal fin base. The spinous dorsal fin is whitish below grading to yellow above, with brown spots and black dusting apically. The second dorsal fin is white basally, becoming lemon yellow above with 3 rows of black blotches forming longitudinal lines across the fin. The anal fin is bright yellow with white margins, the ventrals have a pale yellow center with white margins and the caudal is yellow. The pectoral fin is pale lemon yellow to hyaline with a large round dark brown to bluish brown spot just the base of the fin. [2]

Distribution and habitat

The western school whiting is only known from the coasts of Western Australia, inhabiting a known range from Maud Landing in the north to Rottnest Island, off Perth, in the south. [8] Reports of an unconfirmed 'narrow-barred whiting' off the coast of Fremantle may also refer to S. vittata, which would extend its range further south. The species inhabits both shallow inshore waters, as well as deeper waters on the continental shelf up to 55 m deep. In shallower waters it inhabits weed banks, coral reef [7] and sandy substrates including beaches, often mingling with other species of sillaginids. [2] Systematic studies in lower Western Australia found the species to be most common between 5 and 15 m deep, attributing this to the need for the juveniles to migrate to deeper areas as they mature. [9]

Biology

The biology and ecology of the western school whiting is relatively well known due to a series of studies conducted by researchers at Murdoch University and the Western Australian Marine Research Laboratories. Western school whiting, as their name suggests, are a schooling species, often mingling with other species of sillaginid. In shallower waters, they are often associated with Sillago burrus , Sillago schomburgkii and Sillago analis , while in deeper offshore waters they are often found with Sillago robusta, Sillago bassensis and Sillago burrus.

Diet and feeding

The western school whiting is a benthic predator, taking a variety of polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and other fish. Dietary studies on the species have demonstrated the dominant components of its diet are errant polychaetes, copepods from the cladoceran and calanoid orders, [10] amphipods and ophiuroid echinoderms. [11] Other lesser taken types of food include sedentary polychaetes, harpacticoids, cumaceans, bivalves and teleosts. Studies also show both geographical and seasonal variability, with the habitat type the main influence on diet. Although habitat strongly controls diet, the age of the individuals also partly determines their diet. [10] Although only a minor change in diet is observed as size increases, dietary breadth increased; that is more different types of prey were taken, with younger fish often, but not always, targeting one specific prey type. In general, juveniles take more copepods with adult diets more amphipod and polychaete dominated. [11] Teleosts were only consumed by larger individuals. This pattern is not seen in all populations of fish, with geographic variation having major impacts on all aspects of diet. [10]

Significant dietary overlaps with a number of co-occurring species of sillaginids is seen in both juvenile and adult stages in different environments. [11] Young fish in their shallow, protected environments show overlap with young S. burrus, S. schomburgkii and Sillaginodes punctatus in their preference for copepods, although the timing of spawining events somewhat decreases this competition. In deeper nearshore waters, there is minor overlap with S. bassensis, but significant differences reduce interspecific competition. [11]

As is the case with other sillaginids, their possession of protrusile jaws and a tube-like mouth are ideal for suction feeding on a wide variety of prey that occur on and in the substrate. [10] Measurements of mouth dimensions suggest S. vittata is able to extend its jaws further downward compared to co-occurring species, which may answer why it consumes more polychaetes than these species. [11]

Reproduction and growth

The western school whiting does not reach sexual maturity until the end of the first year of its life in deeper waters, while populations that inhabit nearshore waters don't fully reach maturity until the end of the second year. [12] All male fish are mature by the time they reach 130 mm in length and 160 mm in female fish. The species spawns in deeper waters during a period between December and February, with a peak in early January. Anatomical evidence suggests S. vittata is a batch spawner, releasing eggs in batches over a period during the spawning months, possibly to buffer against adverse environmental factors. [12] juveniles reside in protected inshore waters such as bays and mangrove swamps until they reach sexual maturity, when they move offshore to spawn. Western school whiting usually reach 2 years of age, with some individuals surviving up to 7 years, allowing each fish to spawn multiple times throughout its life. The species reaches 30 cm at its maximum length. [13]

Relationship to humans

Western school whiting are taken in relatively small quantities in comparison to other western Australian sillaginids such as Sillago schomberkii and Sillaginodes punctatus, but has a few minor fisheries developed around it. The first is off Rottnest Island, where it is trawled in deeper offshore waters, and also in Shark Bay, where it is one of a number of sillaginids landed. [7] In Shark Bay it can comprise up to 20% of the entire whiting catch, with fishermen giving it the name 'bastard whiting' as large numbers of S. vittata mean lower numbers of their targeted species. [2] Of the approximately 177 000 kg of whiting taken in Western Australia, less than 2152 kg of this is attributable to S. vittata, making it one of the less important fisheries to the state. [14]

Despite the reactions of professional fishermen, western school whiting are considered to have good to excellent flesh for eating, [6] and fetch similar high prices at market to other whiting species. Due to their offshore nature in the south of Western Australia, they are rarely taken by recreational fishermen, while in the northern part of their range where they inhabit shallower waters, they are often overlooked for larger tropical species by anglers. Thus they are not a major recreational fishery either. They respond to the same fishing styles as other whitings, generally using light lines and sinkers with worm or mollusc baits. They are caught off beaches, jetties and from boats. [15] There is no size restriction on the species, but a daily bag limit of 30 per person applies. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sillaginidae</span> Family of fishes

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a family of benthic coastal marine fish historically classified in the order Perciformes, although the 5th edition of Fishes of the World places the family in the Spariformes. The smelt-whitings inhabit a wide region covering much of the Indo-Pacific, from the west coast of Africa east to Japan and south to Australia. The family comprises only five genera and 35 species, of which a number are dubious, with the last major revision of the family in 1992 unable to confirm the validity of a number of species. They are elongated, slightly compressed fish, often light brown to silver in colour, with a variety of markings and patterns on their upper bodies. The Sillaginidae are not related to a number of fishes commonly called 'whiting' in the Northern Hemisphere, including the fish originally called whiting, Merlangius merlangus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King George whiting</span> Species of fish

The King George whiting, also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago, is a coastal marine fish of the smelt-whitings family Sillaginidae. The King George whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the south coast of the country from Jurien Bay, Western Australia to Botany Bay, New South Wales in the east. The King George whiting is the only member of the genus Sillaginodes and the largest member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae, growing to a length of 80 cm and 4.8 kg in weight. The species is readily distinguishable from other Australian whitings by its unique pattern of spots, as well as its highly elongate shape. King George whiting are often found in bays and protected waterways over sand and seagrass beds, also venturing out onto deep continental shelf reefs during adulthood. The species is a benthic carnivore, consuming a variety of crustaceans, polychaete worms, molluscs and fish. The King George whiting forms the basis of one of southern Australia's most important commercial fisheries, reportedly worth over five million Australian dollars per year. The species is also heavily targeted by recreational anglers, who value the whiting for its sporting and eating qualities.

<i>Sillago</i> Genus of fishes

Sillago is a genus of fish in the family Sillaginidae and the only non-monotypic genus in the family. Distinguishing the species can be difficult, with many similar in appearance and colour, forcing the use of swim bladder morphology as a definitive feature. All species are benthic in nature and generally coastal fish, living in shallow, protected waters although there are exceptions. Minor fisheries exist around various species of Sillago, making them of minor importance in most of their range. This genus has the widest distribution of any smelt-whiting genus, spanning much of the Indo-Pacific. The genus ranges from the east coast of Africa to Japan in the east and Southern Australia in the south, with most species concentrated around South East Asia, the Indonesian Archipelago and Australia. Many species have overlapping distribution, often making positive identification hard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oriental trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The oriental trumpeter whiting is a widely distributed species of benthic inshore fish in the smelt-whiting family. The species ranges from east Africa to Japan, inhabiting much if the southern Asian and Indonesian coastlines. Its morphology is very similar to other species within the genus Sillago, with a long, compressed body and silvery overall colour. It can be distinguished from its relatives by colour patterns and particularly swim bladder morphology, which helps define most species of Sillago. S aeolus is a benthic predator, consuming a variety of crustaceans and polychaetes. As with most members of the smelt whiting family, it is important to small coastal fisheries in various areas of its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden lined whiting</span> Species of fish

The golden lined whiting, also known as the Tin Can Bay whiting or rough-scale whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family, Sillaginidae that inhabits the coastlines of northern Australia and lower Papua New Guinea. The golden lined whiting can be more readily distinguished by its colour than other whitings in the genus Sillago, although swim bladder morphology and spine and ray counts are the most precise method of identification. S. analis is an opportunistic predator, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and molluscs, with a transition of diet seen as the fish mature. One unusual aspect about the species diet is the large amounts of molluscan siphons it takes. The species spawns between January and March, with juvenile fish inhabiting the shallow protected coastal waters. Golden lined whiting is important to fisheries centered on Shark Bay in Western Australia and also in Queensland, although makes up a relatively minor component of the whiting fishery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shortnose whiting</span> Species of fish

The shortnose whiting is a poorly known species, described in 1989, of inshore marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that inhabits only the Persian Gulf. S. arabica is similar in morphology to other sillaginids, although has a distinctive shortened snout which gives the species its common name. This species is of no current interest to local fisheries, although beach seines may take minor amounts of this species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The southern school whiting ,also known as the silver whiting or trawl whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family that inhabits the south and south-west coasts of Australia. Its distribution overlaps a number of other common sillaginids, with careful observation of anatomical features occasionally needed to distinguish between species. The southern school whiting is closely related to the eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi, and initially were thought to be all one species. The species inhabits both shallow inshore sandy waters, as well as deeper offshore waters, with a transition of habitats occurring with increasing age. It is a predatory fish, taking a variety of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves as prey. It reaches sexual maturity at three years of age, and spawns multiple times between December and April. The southern school whiting is commonly caught by commercial and recreational fishermen, often while fishing for related species, especially the sought after King George whiting. The species is marketed fresh in southern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The western trumpeter whiting is a species of marine fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that is commonly found along the northern coast of Australia and in southern Indonesia and New Guinea. As its name suggests, it is closely related to and resembles the trumpeter whiting which inhabits the east coast of Australia and is distinguishable by swim bladder morphology alone. The species inhabits a variety of sandy, silty and muddy substrates in depths from 0 to 15 m deep, with older fish inhabiting deeper waters. Western trumpeter whiting are benthic carnivores which take predominantly crustaceans and polychaetes as prey. The species reaches sexual maturity at the end of its first year of age, spawning in batches between December and February. The species is taken as bycatch with other species of whiting and shrimps in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand whiting</span> Species of fish

The sand whiting, also known as the summer whiting, yellowfin whiting or blue-nose whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the family Sillaginidae, the smelt-whitings. It is a slender, slightly compressed fish that is very similar to other species of Sillago, with detailed spine, ray and lateral line scale counts needed to distinguish the species between its nearest relative Sillago analis. The sand whiting is distributed along the east coast of Australia from Cape York south to Tasmania, as well as Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern school whiting</span> Species of fish

The eastern school whiting, also known as the redspot whiting, Bass Strait whiting, Flinders' sillago, silver whiting or spotted whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The eastern school whiting is endemic to Australia, distributed along the east coast from southern Queensland down to Tasmania and South Australia, where it inhabits sandy substrates from shallow tidal flats to depths of 180 m on the continental shelf. Eastern school whiting prey on various crustaceans and polychaete worms, with the diet varying seasonally and throughout the range of the species. Eastern school whiting reproduce in the deeper waters twice a year, releasing up to 110,000 eggs during a season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bay whiting</span> Species of fish

The bay whiting is a species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The bay whiting's range extends throughout the west Indian Ocean, including northern Australia, Thailand, India and Taiwan, where it inhabits protected waters. It is benthic in nature, preying on shrimps, polychaetes and molluscs, however little else is known of its biology. Bay whiting are an important part of some inshore fisheries around Australia and Asia, where subsistence and commercial fishermen regularly take the species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese whiting</span> Species of fish

The Japanese whiting, also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu, is a common species of coastal marine fish belonging to the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. As suggested by its name, the Japanese whiting was first recorded from Japan in 1843, but has subsequently been found to extend to Korea, China and Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trumpeter whiting</span> Species of fish

The trumpeter whiting, also known as the winter whiting or diver whiting, is a common species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The trumpeter whiting is endemic to Australia, inhabiting the eastern seaboard from southern New South Wales to northern Queensland. The species is found in bays, estuaries, coastal lakes and mangrove creeks on silty and muddy substrates in waters ranging from 0 to 30 m deep, occasionally inhabiting sandy and seagrass beds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern whiting</span> Species of fish

The northern whiting, also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt, is a marine fish, the most widespread and abundant member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The northern whiting was the first species of sillaginid scientifically described and is therefore the type species of both the family Sillaginidae and the genus Sillago. The species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region from South Africa in the west to Japan and Indonesia in the east. The northern whiting inhabits coastal areas to 60 m, but is most often found in shallow water around bays and estuaries, often entering freshwater. It is a carnivore, taking a variety of polychaetes and crustaceans. The species is of major economic importance throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is most frequently taken by seine nets and cast nets and marketed fresh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small-scale whiting</span> Species of fish

The small-scale whiting, also known as the blue whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The small-scale whiting is very similar in body shape and colour to other species in the genus Sillago, but is distinguished by having 12 or 13 spines in the first dorsal fin compared to 11 in all other species. The species is distributed through parts of the west Pacific Ocean including Japan, Taiwan, Korea and India, inhabiting the tidal flats of major estuaries. It is a benthic predator taking crustaceans, molluscs and annelids. Spawning in the species takes place from May to September, with peaks identified in June and July. The eggs and larvae have been extensively studied in order to distinguish them from the more abundant Sillago sihama. Minor fisheries exist for the small-scale whiting, although it is thought be endangered by habitat loss and pollutionIUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estuarine whiting</span> Species of fish

The estuarine whiting, also known as Vincent's whiting, is a species of benthic inshore marine fish of the smelt-whiting family, Sillaginidae. The estuarine whiting is very similar in appearance to the northern whiting, Sillago sihama, and as such was mistaken for the latter until 1980, when R.J. McKay identified the species based primarily on swimbladder morphology. The estuarine whiting is distributed along both the east and west coasts of India, primarily inhabiting the muddy substrates of estuaries. The species is locally important to fisheries in India, and is recognized as having aquaculture potential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stout whiting</span> Species of fish

The stout whiting, also known as the yellow-cheek whiting or school whiting, is a species of benthic marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. Like other sillaginids, it is an elongate, slightly compressed fish, growing to a maximum known length of 30 cm. The stout whiting is endemic to Australia, with the species divided into western and eastern populations, with the western population ranging from Shark Bay to Fremantle and the eastern population from Bustard Head, Queensland to northern New South Wales. The species inhabits deep, sandy continental shelf regions to a depth of at least 70 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowfin whiting</span> Species of fish

The yellowfin whiting, also known as the western sand whiting or fine-scaled whiting, is a species of inshore marine fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is endemic to the eastern Indian Ocean, ranging from Dampier, Western Australia to Gulf St Vincent in South Australia, with an apparent division in the populations of the two states. Yellowfin whiting inhabit relatively shallow waters for their entire life, often found on tidal flats and creeks, as well as large estuaries. It is one of the largest members of the smelt-whiting family, growing to 42 cm, and can be distinguished by a number of anatomical and colour related features. Yellowfin whiting are benthic carnivores, preying predominantly on polychaete worms, with minor amounts of copepods, amphipods and bivalves also commonly taken. The species shows a change in diet with age, and also dietary differences with other sillaginids presumably to minimize competition. Reproduction occurs at different times throughout its range, generally focused around summer, with up to 217,000 eggs produced per season. Yellowfin whiting reach sexual maturity at around 20 cm, with each individual spawning more than once. The species forms the basis of major fisheries in both Shark Bay, Western Australia and the two Gulfs of South Australia, with around 260 tonnes of fish taken each year. They are also a popular target for shore based anglers, with a reputation as a very good table fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smelt-whiting fishing</span>

Smelt-whiting is the common name for various species of the family Sillaginidae. The Sillaginidae are distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region, ranging from the west coast of Africa to Japan and Taiwan in the east, as well occupying as a number of small islands including New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean. Well known members of this family include King George whiting, Japanese whiting, northern whiting, sand whiting and school whiting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese sillago</span> Species of fish

The Chinese sillago is a species of inshore marine fish in the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae, described in 2011. The species is known only to inhabit the coastal waters of China, primarily in estuarine tidal flats near Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province. The Chinese sillago was described in 2011 based on morphological and DNA barcode analysis of several specimens. Several detailed anatomic features distinguish it from other sillaginids, with Sillago parvisquamis its closest relative based on phylogenetic analysis. Nothing is known of the ecology or importance to fisheries of the Chinese sillago.

References

  1. ↑ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2023). Species of Sillago in FishBase . June 2023 version.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 McKay, R.J. (1985). "A Revision of the Fishes of the Family Sillaginidae". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 22 (1): 1–73.
  3. ↑ Nelson, J.S.; Grande, T.C.; Wilson, M.V.H. (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 502–506. doi:10.1002/9781119174844. ISBN   978-1-118-34233-6. LCCN   2015037522. OCLC   951899884. OL   25909650M.
  4. ↑ Hosese, D.F.; Bray, D.J.; Paxton, J.R.; Alen, G.R. (2007). Zoological Catalogue of Australia Vol. 35 (2) Fishes. Sydney: CSIRO. p. 1126. ISBN   978-0-643-09334-8.
  5. ↑ ZipcodeZoo.com (April 24, 2008). "Sillago vittata". Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
  6. 1 2 3 Hutchins, B.; Swainston, R. (1986). Sea Fishes of Southern Australia: Complete Field Guide for Anglers and Divers. Melbourne: Swainston Publishing. p. 187. ISBN   1-86252-661-3.
  7. 1 2 3 4 McKay, R.J. (1992). FAO Species Catalogue: Vol. 14. Sillaginid Fishes Of The World (PDF). Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation. pp. 19–20. ISBN   92-5-103123-1.
  8. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2008). "Sillago vittata" in FishBase . Jun 2008 version.
  9. ↑ Hyndes, G.A.; Platell, M. E.; Potter, I.C.; Lenanton, R.C.J. (1999). "Does the composition of the demersal ®sh assemblages in temperate coastal waters change with depth and undergo consistent seasonal changes?". Marine Biology. Springer-Verlag. 134 (2): 335–352. doi:10.1007/s002270050551.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Schafer, L.N.; M.E. Platell; F.J. Valesini; I.C. Potter (2002). "Comparisons between the influence of habitat type,season and body size on the dietary compositions of fish species in nearshore marine waters". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. Elsevier. 278 (1): 67–92. doi:10.1016/S0022-0981(02)00337-4.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Hyndes, G.A.; M. E. Platell; I. C. Potter (1997). "Relationships between diet and body size, mouth morphology, habitat and movements of six sillaginid species in coastal waters: implications for resource partitioning". Marine Biology. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. 128 (4): 585–598. doi:10.1007/s002270050125.
  12. 1 2 Hyndes, G.A.; I. C. Potter; S. A. Hesp (1996). "Relationships between the movements, growth, age structures, and reproductive biology of the teleosts Sillago burrus and S. vittata in temperate marine waters". Marine Biology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 126 (3): 549–558. doi:10.1007/BF00354637.
  13. ↑ Hyndes, Glenn A.; Ian C. Potter (1997). "Age, growth and reproduction of Sillago schomburgkii in south-western Australian, nearshore waters and comparisons of life history styles of a suite of Sillago species". Environmental Biology of Fishes. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 49 (4): 435–447. doi:10.1023/A:1007357410143.
  14. ↑ Fletcher, W.J.; Head, F., eds. (2006). State of the Fisheries Report 2005/2006. Government of Western Australia: Department of Fisheries. p. 272. ISSN   1446-5906.
  15. ↑ Horrobin, P. (1997). Guide to Favourite Australian Fish. Singapore: Universal Magazines. pp. 102–103. ISSN   1037-2059.
  16. ↑ Department of Fisheries (January 2008). Recreational Fishing Guide: Gascoyne Region. The Government of Western Australia.
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