White savior

Last updated

The term white savior is a critical description of a white person who is depicted as liberating, rescuing or uplifting non-white people; it is critical in the sense that it describes a pattern in which people of color in economically under-developed nations that are majority non-white are denied agency and are seen as passive recipients of white benevolence. [1] [2] The role is considered a modern-day version of what is expressed in the poem The White Man's Burden (1899) by Rudyard Kipling. The term has been associated with Africa, and certain characters in film and television have been critiqued as white savior figures. Writer Teju Cole combined the term with "industrial complex" (derived from military–industrial complex and similarly applied elsewhere) to coin "White Savior Industrial Complex". [3]

Contents

Usage

The concept of the white savior originates from the poem "The White Man's Burden" (1899) by Rudyard Kipling. [4] Its original usage was in the context of the Philippines, but the term has since become associated primarily with Africa, as well as with other regions of the world.[ citation needed ]

Association with Africa

Africa has a history of slavery and of colonization. Damian Zane of BBC News said due to the history, Africans find the "white savior" attitude to help them "deeply patronising and offensive". Zane said, "Some argue that aid can be counter-productive, as it means African countries will continue to rely on outside help." [4] Bhakti Shringarpure, writing for The Guardian , said, "Westerners trying to help poor, suffering countries have often been accused of having a 'white saviour complex': a term tied up in colonial history where Europeans descended to 'civilise' the African continent." [5] The Washington Post 's Karen Attiah said the white savior framework in Africa "follows the venerable tradition" of the novella Heart of Darkness (1899) by Joseph Conrad and that the tradition included the film Machine Gun Preacher (2011), the public relations campaign related to the documentary Kony 2012 (2012), and the writings of journalist Nicholas Kristof. [6]

For example, actor and producer Louise Linton wrote a memoir about her gap year in Zambia, In Congo's Shadow, and wrote an article for The Telegraph , "How my dream gap year in Africa turned into a nightmare", to promote the book. [7] Michael Schaub of Los Angeles Times said, "The reaction to Linton's article was swift and negative, accusing her of using clichés and misrepresentations... Several people have described Linton's memoir as a 'white savior' fantasy." [8] Zambians and other Africans negatively criticized the article on social media. [9] Attiah said the popular Instagram account "BarbieSavior" was inspired by the backlash to Linton's words. [6] Special Broadcasting Service's Amal Awad said the Instagram account parodied "a reckless trend" of voluntourism (volunteering and touring) in which "'white saviours' use the less fortunate like props in their social media profiles". Awad said the interest in volunteering encouraged a business model that leverages a country's existing social issues and charges tourists for volunteering to be a "saviour". [10]

Baaz, Gondola, Marijnen, and Verweijen, writing in Foreign Affairs , were critical of the "white savior complex" in the 2014 documentary Virunga , which features the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Virunga National Park and the conservation work of its park rangers. They said, "The movie features endless footage of a park guard hugging and playing with the gorillas, evoking the notion of the 'noble savage' who is close to nature, honest and naive, and dependent on the white man for his salvation. Rarely do we see the Congolese exercising political agency, even though there are numerous civil society activists in the region, often working at great personal risk." [11]

For decades, the British charity Comic Relief sent white celebrities to African countries in order to film their emotional reactions to impoverished conditions as part of asking the public for money. In 2020, they suspended the practice after criticism that it perpetuated white-savior stereotypes. [12] One of the key critics was British Labour Party politician David Lammy, who in 2019 criticized the charity for "white savior" media in its African campaign. Reuters reported, "Lammy, who is of Guyanese descent, said online photos... evoked negative stereotypes about Africa and its reliance on Western white people for help." The charity and its presenter Stacey Dooley initially argued against the criticism. The Uganda-based campaign group No White Saviors said of the controversy, "There are levels to the white savior complex. You can mean well, do some good along the way and actively be perpetuating the (white savior complex)." [13] NBC News said No White Saviors "tries to raise awareness about the negative impact many 'mainly white' aid workers have had on 'black and brown communities in the name of charity or mission work'". [14]

Musician and activist Bob Geldof has been called a white savior for organizing the 1985 Live Aid event to raise funds for Ethiopian famine relief. He called the accusation "the greatest load of bollocks ever". [15]

Association with the Middle East

The term has been used to refer to white Americans and Europeans that independently partake or assist in Middle Eastern wars. T. E. Lawrence, "Lawrence of Arabia", can be seen as the prototypical white savior figure. Similar accusations have been made against white European men that traveled to fight alongside pro-democracy rebels in the Syrian civil war. [16]

Protection of Muslim women

White feminists are sometimes categorized as white saviors when supporting causes relating to the protection of Muslim women, especially as the implication of Muslim men as oppressors is seen as Islamophobic. [17] [18] [19] The case of Malala Yousafzai has been criticized as advancing white saviorism in Pakistan, due to her high approval in the West and her life having been saved by white doctors. [20] [21]

In media

Appearance in film

In film, the white savior is a cinematic trope in which a white character rescues people of color from their plight. The white savior is portrayed as messianic and often learns something about themselves in the process of rescuing. [22] The trope reflects how media represents race relations by racializing concepts like morality as identifiable with white people over nonwhite people. [23] White saviors are often male and are sometimes out of place in their own society until they lead minorities or foreigners. Screen Saviors: Hollywood Fictions of Whiteness labels the stories as fantasies that "are essentially grandiose, exhibitionistic, and narcissistic". Types of stories include white travels to "exotic" Asian locations, white defense against racism in the American South, or white protagonists having "racially diverse" helpers. [24]

The white lead character is often delegated the role of racial leader in films, taking it upon themselves to save non-white minorities and immigrants from their struggles. [25] The 2011 film The Help is about the mistreatment of Black Americans but offers only a white perspective. The movie, based on a book by a white author, was directed by a white person. [26] The primary white character is portrayed as a heroine for empowering people of color, though often in minuscule ways. Similar criticisms can be made of popular films like Dangerous Minds, The Blind Side , and Remember the Titans. [25]

Appearance in television

Stephanie Greco Larson, writing in Media & Minorities: The Politics of Race in News and Entertainment, said Diff'rent Strokes (1978–1986) and Webster (1983–1987) were "shows in which white families adopt black children" and represented versions of "the white man's burden theme on television". [27] Robin R. Means Coleman said, "In these comedies, Black children are rescued from their dysfunctional families or communities by Whites." [28] In particular, Diff'rent Strokes featured the white millionaire character Philip Drummond. Film historian Donald Bogle said, "The millionaire Drummond becomes a great white father figure, able to provide the material comforts (as well as the subliminal emotional ones) and the cultural milieu that the Black community supposedly could never hope to match." Dustin Tahmahkera writes that Coleman labeled Drummond a "white savior" type who uses "his representational power to save the day by determining a conflict resolution that appeases all parties" including the indigenous representative Longwalker in the episode "Burial Ground". Tahmahkera also said a 1985 episode of Punky Brewster featured the girl protagonist telling a ghost story about her alter-ego Princess Moon helping "ancient Indians [who] suddenly appear... as cave dwellers who need a white savior... to defeat an evil spirit and help keep their Last of the Dogmen-like secret existence intact." [29]

Larson said, "Inner-city schools have been the site of white man's burden dramas on television for decades" with TV series featuring white savior teachers. Larson identified the following series with such teachers: Room 222 (1969–1974), Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–1979), The White Shadow (1978–1981), and Boston Public (2000–2004). Larson said while Room 222 and Boston Public also had black teachers that "challenge the assumption that blacks are inherently inferior... these shows continue to avoid laying blame on social institutions for the status of blacks by showing the success of the individual black teachers." [27]

Appearance in comic books

The Marvel Comics character Iron Fist has been criticized as a white savior character. [30] [31] [32] When the character was adapted in the TV series Iron Fist (2017–2018), The New York Times reported before the show premiered that the casting had received criticism for not changing the character to be Asian-American. The newspaper quoted arguments put forward by Keith Chow, editor-in-chief of The Nerds of Color pop culture blog, "If you’re going to have all these trappings of Orientalism on top of a white savior trope, why not upend both of those things by casting an Asian-American to play the role?" Iron Fist actor Finn Jones denied that Danny Rand would be a white savior figure and said that the series would address critics' concerns. [33] In 2021, Marvel responded by having Rand retire the mantle and introducing a Chinese successor, Lin Lie. [34]

Celebrity humanitarianism and adoption

High-profile Hollywood celebrities have taken on humanitarian roles, and also been criticized for embodying the white savior complex, particularly those who have adopted children from economically underdeveloped environment or countries, or have undertaken publicized trips to underdeveloped countries. Figures such as Bono, Bob Geldof, George Clooney, Madonna, Angelina Jolie, Charlize Theron, Bill Gates and Lady Gaga have become associated with initiatives to alleviate poverty, combat conflict, and support disaster-struck areas in Africa, South Sudan, Malawi, and Haiti respectively. [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40]

"White Savior Industrial Complex"

Writer Teju Cole, who coined the term "White Savior Industrial Complex" Teju Cole.jpg
Writer Teju Cole, who coined the term "White Savior Industrial Complex"

Writer Teju Cole coined the term "White Savior Industrial Complex" following the release of the documentary Kony 2012 in March 2012, extrapolating the term in a seven-part response on Twitter. He later wrote an article for The Atlantic about the term. [41]

  1. From Sachs to Kristof to Invisible Children to TED, the fastest growth industry in the US is the White Savior Industrial Complex.
  2. The white savior supports brutal policies in the morning, founds charities in the afternoon, and receives awards in the evening.
  3. The banality of evil transmutes into the banality of sentimentality. The world is nothing but a problem to be solved by enthusiasm.
  4. This world exists simply to satisfy the needs--including, importantly, the sentimental needs--of white people and Oprah.
  5. The White Savior Industrial Complex is not about justice. It is about having a big emotional experience that validates privilege.
  6. Feverish worry over that awful African warlord. But close to 1.5 million Iraqis died from an American war of choice. Worry about that.
  7. I deeply respect American sentimentality, the way one respects a wounded hippo. You must keep an eye on it, for you know it is deadly.

Cole's response became a viral phenomenon, and The Guardian 's Bhakti Shringarpure reflected on the supportive Internet response to the Kony 2012 political campaign, "With the prevalence of campaigns, apps and games calling on us to help without really putting ourselves out, it seems that the white saviour idea is still alive and well – but now, the mode is digital." [5] Heather Laine Talley, writing in Saving Face: Disfigurement and the Politics of Appearance, said of the response to Cole coining the term, "The very idea of the white savior industrial complex was met with both celebration and rage. Cole was alternately described as a truth teller and as a racist." Talley summarized Cole's response to his critics, "Ultimately, Cole implores Western (white) do-gooders to rethink doing good in two ways. First, own up to the motives that drive philanthropic interventions, so that personal catharsis does not subsume the real need of others. Second, consider the structural underpinnings and historical legacies that together sustain the very infrastructure of the problems that captivate our activist hearts." [42]

Tim Engles, writing in Rhetorics of Whiteness: Postracial Hauntings in Popular Culture, Social Media, and Education, concurred with Cole's assessment, "The lack of real-world efficacy of their efforts, and the apparent unwillingness of most to go any further than such limited and self-aggrandizing steps, suggests that mere validation of white racial privilege was indeed the most significant outcome." [43]

In essence, Cole's concept of the "White Savior Industrial Complex" refers explicitly to the damaging effects of white saviors who prioritize a "big emotional experience" achieved through minor acts of charity or activism over tackling larger issues like systematic oppression and corruption that plague many nations around the world – notably, issues that are often directly caused or perpetuated by the United States. [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Lammy</span> British politician (born 1972)

David Lindon Lammy is an English politician and lawyer who has served as Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom since July 2024. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Tottenham since 2000. Lammy previously held various junior ministerial positions under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown between 2002 and 2010.

The Magical Negro is a trope in American cinema, television, and literature. In the cinema of the United States, the Magical Negro is a supporting stock character who comes to the aid of white protagonists in a film. Magical Negro characters, often possessing special insight or mystical powers, have long been a tradition in American fiction. The old-fashioned word "Negro" is used to imply that a "magical black character" who devotes himself to selflessly helping whites is a throwback to racist stereotypes such as the "Sambo" or "noble savage".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slacktivism</span> Pejorative term for "feel-good" activist measures

Slacktivism is the practice of supporting a political or social cause by means such as social media or online petitions, characterized as involving very little effort or commitment. Additional forms of slacktivism include engaging in online activities such as "liking," "sharing," or "tweeting" about a cause on social media, signing an Internet petition, copying and pasting a status or message in support of the cause, sharing specific hashtags associated with the cause, or altering one's profile photo or avatar on social network services to indicate solidarity.

Covert racism is a form of racial discrimination that is disguised and subtle, rather than public or obvious. Concealed in the fabric of society, covert racism discriminates against individuals through often evasive or seemingly passive methods. Covert, racially biased decisions are often hidden or rationalized with an explanation that society is more willing to accept. These racial biases cause a variety of problems that serve to empower the suppressors while diminishing the rights and powers of the oppressed. Covert racism often works subliminally, and much of the discrimination is done subconsciously.

In the United States, acting white is a pejorative term, usually applied to Black people, which refers to a person's perceived betrayal of their culture by assuming the social expectations of white society. The term is controversial, and its precise meaning is hard to define; some usage focuses on success in education. It is theorized that some students in racial minority groups are discouraged from achieving in school by the negative prejudices of ethnic peers; such a view has been expressed in articles in The New York Times, Time magazine, and The Wall Street Journal—and by public figures and academics across the political spectrum.

Racial passing occurred when a person who was categorized as black, Negro, or Coloured as their Race in the United States of America, sought to be accepted or perceived ("passes") as a member of another racial group usually White. Historically, the term has been used primarily in the United States to describe a black person especially a Mulatto person who assimilated into the white majority to escape the legal and social conventions of racial segregation and discrimination. In the Antebellum South, passing as white was a temporary disguise used as a means of escaping slavery.

"Stranger in the Village" is an essay by African-American novelist James Baldwin about his experiences in Leukerbad, Switzerland, after he nearly suffered a breakdown. The essay was originally published in Harper's Magazine, October 1953, and later in his 1955 collection, Notes of a Native Son.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Industrial complex</span> Economic concept

The industrial complex is a socioeconomic concept wherein businesses become entwined in social or political systems or institutions, creating or bolstering a profit economy from these systems. Such a complex is said to pursue its own interests regardless of, and often at the expense of, the best interests of society and individuals. Businesses within an industrial complex may have been created to advance a social or political goal, but mostly profit when the goal is not reached. The industrial complex may profit financially, or ideologically, from maintaining socially detrimental or inefficient systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invisible Children, Inc.</span> Organization concerning the Lords Resistance Army in Africa

Invisible Children, Inc., founded in 2004, is an organization to increase awareness of the activities of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in Central Africa, and its leader, Joseph Kony. Specifically, the group seeks to put an end to the practices of the LRA, which include abductions and abuse of children, and forcing them to serve as soldiers. To this end, Invisible Children urges the United States government to take military action in the central region of Africa. Invisible Children also operates as a charitable organization, soliciting donations and selling merchandise to raise money for its cause. The organization promotes its cause by dispensing films on the internet and presenting in high schools and colleges around the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teju Cole</span> Nigerian American writer, photographer, and art historian

Teju Cole is a Nigerian-American writer, photographer, and art historian. He is the author of a novella, Every Day Is for the Thief (2007), a novel, Open City (2011), an essay collection, Known and Strange Things (2016), a photobook Punto d'Ombra, and a second novel, Tremor (2023). Critics have praised his work as having "opened a new path in African literature."

<i>Kony 2012</i> 2012 film

Kony 2012 is a 2012 American short documentary film produced by Invisible Children, Inc. The film's purpose was to make Ugandan cult leader, war criminal, and ICC fugitive Joseph Kony globally known so as to have him arrested by the end of 2012. The film was released on March 5, 2012, and spread virally, and the campaign was initially supported by various celebrities.

The term post-blackness is a philosophical movement with origins in the art world that attempts to reconcile the American understanding of race with the lived experiences of African Americans in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

The white savior is a cinematic trope in which a white central character rescues non-white characters from unfortunate circumstances. This recurs in an array of genres in American cinema, wherein a white protagonist is portrayed as a messianic figure who often gains some insight or introspection in the course of rescuing non-white characters from their plight.

<i>Iron Fist</i> (TV series) 2017–2018 Marvel Television series

Marvel's Iron Fist is an American television series created by Scott Buck for the streaming service Netflix, based on the Marvel Comics character Iron Fist. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the franchise's films, and was the fourth Marvel Netflix series leading to the crossover miniseries The Defenders (2017). The series was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios, with Devilina Productions also producing in the first season. Buck served as showrunner for the first season; Raven Metzner took over for the second.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical–industrial complex</span>

The medical–industrial complex (MIC) refers to a network of interactions between pharmaceutical corporations, health care personnel, and medical conglomerates to supply health care-related products and services for a profit. The term is derived from the idea of the military–industrial complex.

<i>Get Out</i> 2017 film by Jordan Peele

Get Out is a 2017 American psychological horror film written, co-produced, and directed by Jordan Peele in his directorial debut. It stars Daniel Kaluuya, Allison Williams, Lil Rel Howery, LaKeith Stanfield, Bradley Whitford, Caleb Landry Jones, Stephen Root, Catherine Keener and Betty Gabriel. The plot follows a young black man (Kaluuya), who uncovers shocking secrets when he meets the family of his white girlfriend (Williams).

<i>Hidden Figures</i> 2016 film by Theodore Melfi

Hidden Figures is a 2016 American biographical drama film directed by Theodore Melfi and written by Melfi and Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 non-fiction book of the same name by Margot Lee Shetterly about three female African-American mathematicians: Katherine Goble Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan, and Mary Jackson, who worked at NASA during the Space Race. Other stars include Kevin Costner, Kirsten Dunst, Jim Parsons, Mahershala Ali, Aldis Hodge, and Glen Powell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louise Linton</span> Scottish actress

Louise Linton is a Scottish actress. She has appeared in the horror films Cabin Fever and Intruder, in minor roles in the television series CSI: NY and Cold Case, and wrote, directed, produced and starred in the 2021 film Me You Madness. The film received poor reviews and was considered a flop both critically and commercially. Linton is married to Steven Mnuchin, the former United States Secretary of the Treasury.

<i>Iron Fist</i> season 1 Season of television series

The first season of the American streaming television series Iron Fist, which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, follows Danny Rand as he returns to New York City after being presumed dead for 15 years and must choose between his family's legacy and his duties as the Iron Fist. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise. The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Devilina Productions, with Scott Buck serving as showrunner.

Karen is a slang term typically used to refer to a middle-class white American woman who is perceived as entitled or excessively demanding. The term is often portrayed in memes depicting middle-class white women who "use their white and class privilege to demand their own way". Depictions include demanding to "speak to the manager", being racist, or wearing a particular bob cut hairstyle. It was popularized in the aftermath of the Central Park birdwatching incident in 2020.

References

  1. ↑ Cammarota, Julio (2011-07-01). "Blindsided by the Avatar: White Saviors and Allies Out of Hollywood and in Education". Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies. 33 (3): 242–259. doi:10.1080/10714413.2011.585287. ISSN   1071-4413. S2CID   144651303.
  2. ↑ Yu, Chunhua (August 2021). "An Examination of the Institutionally Oppressive White Savior Complex in Uganda Through Western Documentaries". International Social Science Review. 97 (2).
  3. ↑ Aronson, Brittany A (2017). "The White Savior Industrial Complex: A Cultural Studies Analysis of a Teacher Educator, Savior Film, and Future Teachers". Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis. 6 (3). doi:10.31274/jctp-180810-83. ISSN   2325-1204.
  4. 1 2 Zane, Damian (May 1, 2016). "Barbie challenges the 'white saviour complex'". BBC News . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  5. 1 2 Shringarpure, Bhakti (June 18, 2015). "The rise of the digital saviour: can Facebook likes change the world?". The Guardian . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  6. 1 2 Attiah, Karen (July 6, 2016). "Louise Linton just wrote the perfect White-Savior-in-Africa story". The Washington Post . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  7. ↑ Linton, Louise (July 1, 2016). "How my dream gap year in Africa turned into a nightmare". The Telegraph . Archived from the original on July 1, 2016.
  8. ↑ Schaub, Michael (July 6, 2016). "Controversial Africa memoir draws fire for Louise Linton, actress, self-published author and Trump dining companion". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  9. ↑ Shearlaw, Maeve (July 5, 2016). "Briton's African gap year memoir sparks angry Twitter response". The Guardian . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  10. ↑ Awad, Amal (April 28, 2016). "When the saviour becomes the story". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on June 9, 2020. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  11. ↑ Baaz, Maria Eriksson; Gondola, Didier; Marijnen, Esther; Verweijen, Judith (March 5, 2015). "Virunga's White Savior Complex". Foreign Affairs . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  12. ↑ Waterson, Jim (October 27, 2020). "Comic Relief stops sending celebrities to African countries". The Guardian . Retrieved October 30, 2020.
  13. ↑ Taylor, Lin (March 1, 2019). "Star humanitarian or white savior? Celebrities in Africa spark online furor". reuters.com. Reuters . Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  14. ↑ Harman, Sarah (August 5, 2019). "U.S. citizen went to Uganda to help kids. Now her charity is accused of killing them". nbcnews.com. NBC News . Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  15. ↑ Taggart, Emma (15 February 2024). "Bob Geldof: Organising Live Aid doesn't make me white saviour". The Times. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  16. ↑ Goudsouzian, Tanya. "Arabs' white 'saviours'". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  17. ↑ Briskman, Linda; Latham, Susie (2017). "Muslims at the Australian periphery". Coolabah. 21: 33–46.
  18. ↑ Fluri, Jennifer L. (2009). "The beautiful 'other': a critical examination of 'western' representations of Afghan feminine corporeal modernity". Gender, Place & Culture . 16 (3): 241–257. doi: 10.1080/09663690902836292 . S2CID   143827345.
  19. ↑ Lodi, Hafsa (2021-09-02). "How not to be a white savior when you talk about women in Afghanistan and Texas". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
  20. ↑ Baig, Assed (2013-07-15). "Malala Yousafzai and the White Saviour Complex". HuffPost UK. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
  21. ↑ Aimen, Umema (2013). "In Pakistan, Malala is seen as an overexposed poster child of the West". The Washington Post .
  22. ↑ "Matthew W. Hughey: The White Savior Film". temple.edu. Temple University . Retrieved October 1, 2014.
  23. ↑ "Interview with Matthew W. Hughey". temple.edu. Temple University . Retrieved October 1, 2014.
  24. ↑ Vera, Hernán; Gordon, Andrew M. (2003). "The Beautiful White American: Sincere Fictions of the Savior". Screen Saviors: Hollywood Fictions of Whiteness . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp.  32–33. ISBN   978-1-4616-4286-2.
  25. 1 2 Latini Wolfe, Naomi (2022). Social Problems and Silver Linings (1st ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Tophatmonocle Corp.
  26. ↑ Dargis, M (2011). "The maids" now have their say". The New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
  27. 1 2 Larson, Stephanie Greco (2006). "African Americans in Film and Television Entertainment". Media & Minorities: The Politics of Race in News and Entertainment. Spectrum Series: Race and Ethnicity in National and Global Politics. Rowmn & Littlefield. pp. 32–33. ISBN   978-0-8476-9453-2.
  28. ↑ Coleman, Robin R. Means (2003). "Black Sitcom Portrayals". In Dines, Gail; Humez, Jean M. (eds.). Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed.). SAGE. p.  83. ISBN   978-0-7619-2261-2.
  29. ↑ Tahmahkera, Dustin (2014). "Settler Self-Determination". Tribal Television: Viewing Native People in Sitcoms. UNC Press Books. pp. 96–97. ISBN   978-1-4696-1869-2.
  30. ↑ Bricken, Rob (March 7, 2016). "It Actually Really, Really Sucks That TV's Iron Fist Is White". io9 . Archived from the original on July 2, 2018. Retrieved July 2, 2018.
  31. ↑ Lee, Jonathan (July 25, 2018). "'Iron Fist' Was Always Racist — and the Netflix Show Isn't Helping". Inverse . Archived from the original on December 5, 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
  32. ↑ Leon, Melissa (March 15, 2017). "The 'Iron Fist' White Savior Controversy: Creator and Stars Discuss the Mounting Backlash". Daily Beast . Archived from the original on October 31, 2021.
  33. ↑ Victor, Daniel (March 8, 2017). "'Iron Fist' Actor, at Center of Whitewashing Debate, Asks Fans to Wait and See". The New York Times . Retrieved March 15, 2017.
  34. ↑ Schedeen, Jesse (2021-11-11). "Why Marvel Is Introducing an Asian Iron Fist After 50 Years". IGN. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
  35. ↑ Mwenda, Andrew M. "Celebrities Should Not Victimize Africa". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  36. ↑ Mlanjira, Duncan (2023-01-04). "Africa: Ethiopian World Federation Asks President Chakwera to Institute Investigations On Integrity of Madonna's Malawi Charity, Raising Malawi". Nyasa Times. Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  37. ↑ Kachipande, Sitinga (2015-07-27). "Madonna, Malawi and the problem with celebrity adoptions – Voices of Africa" . Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  38. ↑ "Malawi: Presidents, Pop Stars and the 'White Savior' Complex". Global Voices. 2013-04-23. Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  39. ↑ Bell, Katherine. "Raising Africa?: Celebrity and the Rhetoric of the White Saviour". ResearchGate.
  40. ↑ "Case study – Celebrity humanitarianism – The digital saviour". FutureLearn. Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  41. ↑ Cole, Teju (March 21, 2012). "The White-Savior Industrial Complex". The Atlantic . Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  42. ↑ Talley, Heather Laine (2014). Saving Face: Disfigurement and the Politics of Appearance. NYU Press. pp. 128–129. ISBN   978-0-8147-8411-2.
  43. ↑ Engles, Tim (2016). "Racialized Slacktivism". In Kennedy, Tammie M.; Middleton, Irene Joyce; Ratcliffe, Krista (eds.). Rhetorics of Whiteness: Postracial Hauntings in Popular Culture, Social Media, and Education. SIU Press. p. 98. ISBN   978-0-8093-3546-6.
  44. ↑ Aronson, Brittany A (2017). "The White Savior Industrial Complex: A Cultural Studies Analysis of a Teacher Educator, Savior Film, and Future Teachers". Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis. 6 (3): 9270485. doi:10.31274/jctp-180810-83. ISSN   2325-1204.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.