Last updated A World War I-era female peace protester
The Woman's Peace Party (WPP) was an American pacifist and feminist organization formally established in January 1915 in response to World War I. The organization is remembered as the first American peace organization to make use of direct action tactics such as public demonstration. The Woman's Peace Party became the American section of an international organization known as the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace later in 1915, a group which later changed its name to the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
Prior to the establishment of the Woman's Peace Party, the three leading American pacifist organizations of national stature were essentially conservative enterprises, viewing the peace movement's mission as one of extending stability, order, and the expansion of venerable American institutions.[1]
The American Peace Society (BBC), established in 1828, was the oldest of the previously existing pacifist organizations and suffered from what one historian has called "over seven decades of accumulated Victorianism.[2] Typified by the detached conservative nobility of corporate attorney Elihu Root, the APS was dedicated to demonstrating the incompatibility between war and Christianity and throughout its existence had remained small, impoverished, and ineffectual.[2] By the time of World War I, it had been reduced in status to that of a veritable subsidiary of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
The Carnegie Endowment was launched by industrialistAndrew Carnegie in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.[3] The Endowment became effectively a university publishing house for the peace movement, concentrating on academic research and the printed word rather than oratory.[4]
The third of the primary American peace organizations of the first decade of the 20th century was the World Peace Foundation (WPF), a group established in 1909 by millionaire Boston publisher Edwin Ginn as "Edwin Ginn's International School for Peace."[5] This organization was launched with a $1 million endowment and carried on publishing activities, changing its name to the WPF in 1911.[3] As with the Carnegie Foundation, the WPF limited its activities largely to research and publication, attempting to influence political decision-makers with ideas rather than to stir the fires of popular sentiment.
Much like the trustified world of big business of the day, the peace movement was characterized by interlocking directorates of the various organizations, with a very few men and no women wielding decisive influence over the movement by virtue of the power of the pocketbook.[4] The American peace movement was, in short, part of the political establishment, with dinner meetings of the New York Peace Society likened by one contemporary to "a banquet of the Chamber of Commerce."[6]
Woman's Peace Parade
Fanny Garrison Villard, daughter of William Lloyd Garrison, chair of the August 1914 Woman's Peace Parade Committee, and initiator of the Woman's Peace Party
Although the establishment of a permanent organization did not follow for more than four months, the roots of the Woman's Peace Party lay in a protest march of 1,500 women in New York City on August 29, 1914.[1] This "Woman's Peace Parade" was organized less than a month after the outbreak of hostilities in World War I and featured a silent procession down Fifth Avenue behind a white banner bearing a dove in front of somber crowds lining the streets.[1]
"There were no bands; there was dead silence and the crowds watched the parade in the spirit of the marchers, with sympathy and approval. The President had also approved, for the organizers, in complete sympathy with his public statements of the early days of the conflict, had courteously asked him for his consent. He was especially pleased by the decision of the paraders to carry no flags except the peace flag and to have no set speeches at the conclusion of the parade, but brief informal addresses were made to all who would listed....
"The silence, the dignity, the black dresses of the marchers — those who did not have black dresses wore black arm bands — the solemnity of the crowds, all of these produced a profound effect on the beholders."[8]
The Woman's Peace Parade marked a change of methods of the peace movement. Older American peace organizations limited themselves to working behind the scenes, attempting to influence policy through regular political channels.[9] The Peace Parade, on the other hand, made use of direct action, attempting to build popular support for peace through public demonstration in the same way that labor organizations had historically fought for policies and settlements which were important to them.[9] With this tactical shift, the Woman's Peace Parade and the organization which emerged from it, the Woman's Peace Party, effectively marked the beginning of the modern peace movement.[10]
In the aftermath of the march, Fanny Garrison Villard sought to transform the temporary organization constructed to coordinate the march into a permanent group. Villard called upon one of her old rivals in the women's movement, Carrie Chapman Catt, President of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance to help in this regard.[7] Catt, a former associate of Susan B. Anthony, was fixated upon the struggle for women's right to vote and did not see the peace march as a likely vehicle for a change of public sentiment or national policy.[11] Still, Catt was won over to the idea that the American suffrage movement stood to gain in support and stature if women could gain a prominent role in the noble struggle for an end to the European bloodbath.[12]
In the middle of December 1914, Catt was finally persuaded to give full effort for the launch of a national women's peace organization.[13] She wrote to settlement workerJane Addams of Hull House in Chicago, attempting to bring her into the forthcoming organization as its leader.[13] Addams had long believed in a close interrelationship between international peace, domestic humanitarian reform, and women's right to vote and was won over to the idea of a national women's peace movement.[13] The stage was set for a formal launch of the new organization — a group to be called the Woman's Peace Party.
Foundation convention
The Woman's Peace Party was established at an organizational convention held in Washington, DC on January 9–10, 1915.[14] The gathering was attended by more than 100 delegates representing women's organizations from around the United States.[14]
Jane Addams was elected President of the new organization by the convention and given the power to select a Secretary and Treasurer for the group, which was to be headquartered in Addams' home city of Chicago.[14] Membership in the new organization was open to all groups willing to repurpose themselves also as a "peace circle" and to any woman paying a $1 annual membership fee.[14] Officers ultimately included Lucia Ames Mead as National Secretary, Harriet P. Thomas as Executive Secretary, Sophonisba P. Breckinridge as Treasurer, and Elizabeth Glendower Evans as National Organizer.[15]
The convention approved a platform calling for the immediate convocation of "a convention of neutral nations in the interest of an early peace," the limitation of armaments, organized opposition to militarism (or military intervention)[16] in America, democratization of foreign policy, removal of the economic motivation for war, and the expansion of the electoral franchise for women.[14] The right of women to vote was seen by the female participants in the organization as part-and-parcel of the cause for peace, based on the presumption that women were inclined by nature to be oriented towards the nurturing of human life.[17]
The founding convention also approved a supplemental "Program for Constructive Peace" which demanded that the American government to call a conference of neutral nations and declared that, failing that, "the party itself will call an unofficial conference of pacifists from the world over" to determine a course of action.[14] To ensure that the current war was not merely a prelude for another, the program called for a peace based upon no transfers of territory without the will of the involved people, no indemnities to be assessed outside those in accordance with international law, and no treaties between nations to be established without ratification of representatives of the people.[14]
Activities concluded with a mass meeting held in the ballroom of the New Willard Hotel on Sunday, January 10, which was filled to capacity.[14] An additional overflow meeting was held in another room but still some 500 interested people had to be turned away for lack of space.[14] Speeches were delivered to this gathering by Jane Addams, and feminist activists Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence of England, Rosika Schwimmer of Hungary, among others.[14]
1915 International Congress of Women
Delegates to the April 1915 Women's International Congress for Peace and Freedom aboard the MS Noordam with their blue and white "PEACE" banner
The ongoing war in Europe forced the cancellation of the scheduled biennial convention of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, which had been slated for Berlin in 1915.[18] The cancellation of the German gathering provided an opportunity for the women's peace movement to hold an international gathering of their own, and a call was issued for a convention to be held in the neutral Netherlands.[18] Jane Addams, President of the Woman's Peace Party and arguably the most respected and influential woman in America was invited to preside over the conclave.[18]
The trip was not without controversy, despite America's formally neutral status, with former President Theodore Roosevelt declaring the women's mission "silly and base"" and calling the women cowards who sought peace "without regard to righteousness."[18] The American women were not dissuaded, sailing into danger with a homemade blue and white banner that bore the single word, "PEACE."[18]
The Noordam was held up for four days in the English Channel by the Royal Navy but was ultimately allowed to proceed to The Hague, which it arrived barely in time for the start of the three-day congress on the evening of April 28, 1915.[21] Despite the decision of some combatant nations, such as Great Britain, to deny its citizens passports which would have allowed them to participate in the Congress, the gathering still proved to be a massive event, bringing together 1,136 delegates and more than 2,000 visitors.[21]
The congress drafted a series of resolutions detailing plans for a just peace, calling for general disarmament and the removal of the profit motive through nationalizing the production of armaments, and asserting the benefits of free trade and freedom of navigation on the high seas.[22] A resolution calling for continuous mediation of disputes by a conference of neutral nations was passed, but ultimately failed to come to fruition.[22] A delegation headed by Addams was dispatched to the capitals of the belligerent powers but it, too, proved ineffectual.[22]
Before adjourning, the congress established a new international organization called the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace.[15] The Woman's Peace Party came to regard itself as the American section of this organization.
Name change
In 1921 the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace formally changed its name to the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
↑ Marchand, The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918, pg. 186.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Dee Garrison, Mary Heaton Vorse: The Life of an American Insurgent. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989; pg. 88.
↑ Harriet Hyman Alonso, Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the US Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993; pg. 66.
↑ Faith, Thomas I. (2014). "Women's International League for Peace and Freedom". In Wayne, Tiffany K; Banner, Lois W (eds.). Women's Rights in the United States: a comprehensive encyclopedia of issues, events, and people. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp.272–3. ISBN978-1-61069-214-4.
Alonso, Harriet Hyman. Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the US Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights (Syracuse University Press, 1993).
Cook, Blanche Wiesen. "Democracy in wartime: antimilitarism in England and the United States, 1914-1918." American Studies 13.1 (1972): 51-68. online
Cook, Blanche W. "The Woman’s Peace Party." Peace & Change 1.1 (1972): 36-42.
Craig, John M. "The Woman's Peace Party and Questions of Gender Separatism." Peace & Change 19.4 (1994): 373-398.
Degen, Mary Louise. The History of the Woman's Peace Party. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1939).
Kuhlman, Erika. " 'Women's Ways in War': The Feminist Pacifism of the New York City Woman's Peace Party." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 18.1 (1997): 80-100.
Marchand, C. Roland. The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918 (Princeton UP, 1972).
Schott, Linda. "The Woman's Peace Party and the Moral Basis for Women's Pacifism." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies (1985): 18-24. online
Steinson, Barbara J. (1995). "Woman's Peace Party". In Anne Cipriano Venzon (ed.). United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN978-1-135-68453-2.
Van Wienen, Mark. "Women's Ways in War: The Poetry and Politics of the Woman's Peace Party, 1915-1917." Modern Fiction Studies 38.3 (1992): 687-714. online
Historiography and memory
Alonso, Harriet, and Melanie Gustafson. "Bibliography on the History of US Women in Movements for Peace." Women's Studies Quarterly 12.2 (1984): 46-50. online
Alonso, Harriet Hyman. "One Woman's Journey into the World of Women's Peace History." Women's Studies Quarterly 23.3/4 (1995): 170-182. online
Tickner, J. Ann, and Jacqui True. "A century of international relations feminism: from World War I women's peace pragmatism to the women, peace and security agenda." International Studies Quarterly 62.2 (2018): 221-233. online
Wittner, Lawrence S. "Blanche Wiesen Cook and World Peace." Meridians: feminism, race, transnationalism 10.2 (2010): 86-95. online
Laura Jane Addams was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, philosopher, and author. She was a leader in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States. Addams co-founded Hull House, one of America's most famous settlement houses, in Chicago, Illinois, providing extensive social services to poor, largely immigrant families. In 1910, Addams was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Yale University, becoming the first woman to receive an honorary degree from the school. In 1920, she was a co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
Emily Greene Balch was an American economist, sociologist and pacifist. Balch combined an academic career at Wellesley College with a long-standing interest in social issues such as poverty, child labor, and immigration, as well as settlement work to uplift poor immigrants and reduce juvenile delinquency.
Carrie Chapman Catt was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U.S. women the right to vote in 1920. Catt served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association from 1900 to 1904 and 1915 to 1920. She founded the League of Women Voters in 1920 and the International Woman Suffrage Alliance in 1904, which was later named International Alliance of Women. She "led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920". She "was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women."
Rosika Schwimmer was a Hungarian-born pacifist, feminist, world federalist and women's suffragist. A co-founder of the Campaign for World Government with Lola Maverick Lloyd, her radical vision of world peace led to the creation of several world federalist movements and organizations. Sixty years after she first envisaged it, the movement she helped to create indeed took a leading role in the creation of the International Criminal Court, the first permanent international tribunal tasked with charging individuals with war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.
The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) is a non-profit non-governmental organization working "to bring together women of different political views and philosophical and religious backgrounds determined to study and make known the causes of war and work for a permanent peace" and to unite women worldwide who oppose oppression and exploitation. WILPF has national sections in 37 countries.
The American Union Against Militarism (AUAM) was an American pacifist organization established in response to World War I. The organization attempted to keep the United States out of the European conflict through mass demonstrations, public lectures, and the printed word. Failing in that effort with American entry into the war in April 1917, the Union battled against conscription, action which subjected it to state repression, and military intervention. The organization was eventually dissolved after the war in 1922.
Helen Frances “Fanny” Garrison Villard was an American women's suffrage campaigner, pacifist and a co-founder of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. She was the daughter of prominent publisher and abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and the wife of railroad tycoon Henry Villard.
Opposition to World War I was widespread during the conflict and included socialists, anarchists, syndicalists and Marxists as well as Christian pacifists, anti-colonial nationalists, feminists, intellectuals, and the working class.
Mary Heaton Vorse was an American journalist and novelist. She established her reputation as a journalist reporting the labor protests of a largely female and immigrant workforce in the east-coast textile industry. Her later fiction drew on this material profiling the social and domestic struggles of working women. Unwilling to be a disinterested observer, she participated in labor and civil protests and was for a period the subject of regular U.S. Justice Department surveillance.
The International Congress of Women was created so that groups of existing women's suffrage movements could come together with other women's groups around the world. It served as a way for women organizations across the nation to establish formal means of communication and to provide more opportunities for women to ask the big questions relating to feminism at the time. The congress has been utilized by a number of feminist and pacifist events since 1878. A few groups that participated in the early conferences were The International Council of Women, The International Alliance of Women and The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
The Women's Peace Society was an organized movement that focused on demilitarization in the United States and iniquity of violence. The Women's Peace Society was an active organization for fourteen years, being founded in 1919 and evolving into a separate peace movement-Women's Peace Union of the Western Hemisphere- in 1933. The Women's Peace Society was created on September 12, 1919, in the United States when a group of women that included Fanny Garrison Villard, Elinor Byrns, Katherine Devereaux Blake, and Caroline Lexow Babcock resigned from the executive committee of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom because they found "a fundamental lack of unity in the membership as a whole and in the executive committee". The leader of the group, Fanny Garrison, Villard sought to bring importance to humanitarian issues and raise awareness for the importance of all lives after the deadly consequences of World War I.
Jessie Wallace Hughan was an American educator, a socialist activist, and a radical pacifist. During her college days she was one of four co-founders of Alpha Omicron Pi, a national fraternity for university women. She also was a founder and the first Secretary of the War Resisters League, established in 1923. For over two decades, she was a perennial candidate for political office on the ticket of the Socialist Party of America in her home state of New York.
The People's Council of America for Democracy and the Terms of Peace, commonly known as the "People's Council," was an American pacifist political organization established in New York City in May 1917. Organized in opposition to the decision of the Woodrow Wilson administration's decision to enter World War I, the People's Council attempted to mobilize American workers and intellectuals against the war effort through publication of literature and the conduct of mass meetings and public demonstrations. The organization's dissident views made it a target of federal, state, and local authorities, who disrupted its meetings and arrested a number of its leading participants under provisions of the Espionage Act. The People's Council was succeeded in 1919 by a new group based in the same New York City headquarters, the People's Freedom Union.
Devere Allen (1891–1955) was an American socialist and pacifist political activist and journalist. Allen is best remembered as the main editor of The World Tomorrow following the departure of Norman Thomas from the magazine in 1922. Allen was the author of more than 20 books and pamphlets and was active in the leadership of several political organizations, including the League for Independent Political Action (1928–1932) and the Socialist Party of America.
Harriet Irene Dunlop Prenter was a leader in the women's rights movement in Canada. In 1921 she was among the first group of women to run as candidates in a Canadian federal election. She was a committed socialist.
The Woman Suffrage Party (WSP) was a New York city political organization dedicated to women's suffrage. It was founded in New York by Carrie Chapman Catt at the Convention of Disfranchised Women in 1909. WSP called itself "a political union of existing equal suffrage organizations in the City of New York." WSP was many New York women's first experience with politics and "contributed directly to the passage of a woman suffrage amendment in New York state."
Lucia Ames Mead was an American pacifist, feminist, writer, and educator based in Boston, Massachusetts.
Gertrud Baer (1890–1981) was a German Jewish women's rights and peace activist. One of the founding members of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, she served as the executive secretary of the German branch of WILPF beginning in 1921 and co-chair of the international organization from 1929 to 1947. Throughout World War II, though leadership was shared, Baer was the primary leader of the organization. At the end of the war, she became the first WILPF consultant to the United Nations and held that post until 1972.
Rose Morgan French was an American suffragist, temperance and peace activist. She represented California suffragists as a delegate to the International Congress of Women, when it met in The Hague in 1915, and in Zürich in 1919.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
