1906 Atlanta race riot

Last updated

1906 Atlanta massacre
Part of the Nadir of American race relations
Le Petit Journal 7 Oct 1906.jpg
The cover of French magazine Le Petit Journal in October, 1906, depicting the Atlanta race riot
Location Atlanta, Georgia
DateSeptember 22–24, 1906
TargetAfrican Americans
Deaths25+ African Americans, 2 white Americans
Injured90+ African Americans, 10 white Americans
PerpetratorsWhite mobs, and Fulton county police.

The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot, also known as the 1906 Atlanta Race Massacre, was an episode of mass racial violence against African Americans in the United States in September 1906. Violent attacks by armed mobs of White Americans against African Americans in Atlanta, Georgia, began after newspapers, on the evening of September 22, 1906, published several unsubstantiated and luridly detailed reports of the alleged rapes of 4 local women by black men. [1] The violence lasted through September 24, 1906. [2] The events were reported by newspapers around the world, including the French Le Petit Journal which described the "lynchings in the USA" and the "massacre of Negroes in Atlanta," [3] the Scottish Aberdeen Press & Journal under the headline "Race Riots in Georgia," [4] and the London Evening Standard under the headlines "Anti-Negro Riots" and "Outrages in Georgia." [5] The final death toll of the conflict is unknown and disputed, but officially at least 25 African Americans [6] and two whites died. [7] Unofficial reports ranged from 10–100 black Americans killed during the massacre. [8] According to the Atlanta History Center, some black Americans were hanged from lampposts; others were shot, beaten or stabbed to death. They were pulled from street cars and attacked on the street; white mobs invaded black neighborhoods, destroying homes and businesses.

Contents

The immediate catalyst was newspaper reports of four white women raped in separate incidents, allegedly by African American men. A grand jury later indicted two African Americans for raping Ethel Lawrence and her aunt. An underlying cause was the growing racial tension in a rapidly-changing city and economy, competition for jobs, housing, and political power.

The violence did not end until after Governor Joseph M. Terrell called in the Georgia National Guard, and African Americans accused the Atlanta Police Department and some Guardsmen of participating in the violence against them. Local histories by whites ignored the massacre for decades. It was not until 2006 that the event was publicly marked – on its 100th anniversary. The next year, the Atlanta massacre was made part of the state's curriculum for public schools. [9]

Background

Growth of Atlanta

After the end of the American Civil War and during the Reconstruction era, there was violence of whites against blacks throughout the South, as whites reacted to emancipation of blacks, accusations of black criminality, and political empowerment of freedmen, specifically gaining the voting franchise which led to political power and representation. Having former slaves become equals was threatening to their ideals of racial supremacy. Increased tension also resulted from whites competing with blacks for wages, and the idea of paying for labor which had been free for centuries. Atlanta had developed rapidly, attracting workers for its rebuilding and, particularly from the 1880s as the "rail hub" of the South: workers from all over the country began to flood the city. This resulted in a dramatic increase in both the African-American population (9,000 in 1880 to 35,000 in 1900) and the overall city population (from a population of 89,000 in 1900 to 150,000 in 1910) [10] as individuals from rural areas and small towns sought better economic opportunities. [11]

With this influx and the subsequent increase in the demand for resources, race relations in Atlanta became increasingly strained in the crowded city. [11] Whites expanded Jim Crow segregation in residential neighborhoods and on public transportation. [10]

African-American advancements

Freedmen and their descendants had gained the franchise during Reconstruction, and whites increasingly feared and resented their exercise of political power. African Americans had established prosperous businesses and developed an elite who distinguished themselves from working-class blacks. Some whites resented them. Among the successful black businessmen was Alonzo Herndon, who owned and operated a large, refined barber shop that served prominent white men. This new status brought increased competition between blacks and whites for jobs and heightened class distinctions. [12] [13] The police and fire department were still exclusively white, as were most employees in the city and county governments.

State requirements from 1877 limited black voting through poll taxes, record keeping and other devices to impede voter registration, but many freedmen and descendants could still vote. But both major candidates played on racial tensions during their campaigning for the gubernatorial election of 1906, in which M. Hoke Smith and Clark Howell competed for the Democratic primary nomination. Smith had explicitly "campaigned on a platform to disenfranchise black voters in Georgia." [14] Howell was also looking to exclude them from politics. Smith was a former publisher of the Atlanta Journal and Howell was the editor of the Atlanta Constitution . Both candidates used their influence to incite white voters and help spread the fear that whites may not maintain the current social order. [12] These papers and others attacked saloons and bars that were run and frequented by black citizens. These "dives", as whites called them, were said to have nude pictures of women. The Atlanta Georgian and the Atlanta News publicized police reports of white women who were allegedly sexually molested and raped by black men. [12]

Events

The Clansman and tensions

"Historians and contemporary commentators cite the stage production of The Clansman [by Thomas Dixon, Jr.] in Atlanta as a contributing factor to that city's race riot of 1906, in which white mobs rampaged through African-American communities." [15] In Savannah, where it opened next, police and military were on high alert, and present on every streetcar going toward the theater. [16] Authorities in Macon, where the play was next to open, asked for it not to be permitted, and it was not. [17]

Newspaper report and attacks

On Saturday afternoon, September 22, 1906, Atlanta newspapers reported four sexual assaults on local white women, allegedly by black men. A grand jury later indicted two for the rape of Ethel Lawrence and her niece, Mabel Lawerence. Following this report, several dozen white men and boys began gathering in gangs, and began to beat, stab, and shoot black people in retaliation, pulling them off or assaulting them on streetcars, beginning in the Five Points section of downtown. After extra editions of the paper were printed, by midnight estimates were that 10,000 to 15,000 white men and boys had gathered through downtown streets and were roaming to attack black people. [18] By 10 pm, the first three blacks had been killed and more were being treated in the hospital (at least five of whom would die); among these were three women. Governor Joseph M. Terrell called out eight companies of the Fifth Infantry and one battery of light artillery. [18] By 2:30 am, some 25 to 30 blacks were reported dead, with many more injured. The trolley lines had been closed before midnight to reduce movement, in hopes of discouraging the mobs and offering some protection to the African-American neighborhoods, as whites were going there and attacking people in their houses, or driving them outside. [18]

Alonzo Herndon's barbershop was among the first targets of the white mob, and the fine fittings were destroyed. [19] Individual black men were killed on the steps of the US Post Office and inside the Marion Hotel, where a crowd chased one. During that night, a large mob attacked Decatur Street, the center of black restaurants and saloons. It destroyed the businesses and assaulted any black people within sight. Mobs moved to Peters Street and related neighborhoods to wreak more damage. [18] Heavy rain from 3 am to 5 am helped suppress the fever for rioting. [20]

The events were quickly publicized the next day, Sunday, as violence continued against black people, and the massacre was covered internationally. Le Petit journal of Paris reported, "Black men and women were thrown from trolley-cars, assaulted with clubs and pelted with stones." [3] By the next day, the New York Times reported that at least 25 to 30 black men and women were killed, with 90 injured. One white man was reported killed, and about 10 injured. [20]

An unknown and disputed number of black people were killed on the street and in their shops, and many were injured. In the center of the city, the militia was seen by 1 am. But most were not armed and organized until 6 am when more were posted in the business district. Sporadic violence had continued in the late night in distant quarters of the city as small gangs operated. On Sunday hundreds of black people left the city by train and other means, seeking safety at a distance. [20]

Defense attempts

On Sunday a group of African Americans met in the Brownsville community south of downtown and near Clark University to discuss actions; they had armed themselves for defense. Fulton County police learned of the meeting and raided it; an officer was killed in an ensuing shootout. Three militia companies were sent to Brownsville, where they arrested and disarmed about 250 blacks, including university professors. [21] [22]

The New York Times reported that when Mayor James G. Woodward, a Democrat, was asked as to the measures taken to prevent a race riot, he replied:

The best way to prevent a race riot depends entirely upon the cause. If your inquiry has anything to do with the present situation in Atlanta then I would say the only remedy is to remove the cause. As long as the black brutes assault our white women, just so long will they be unceremoniously dealt with. [23]

Aftermath

Grand Jury

On September 28, The New York Times reported,

The Fulton County Grand Jury today made the following presentment:

"Believing that the sensational manner in which the afternoon newspapers of Atlanta have presented to the people the news of the various criminal acts recently committed in this county has largely influenced the creation of the spirit animating the mob of last Saturday night; and that the editorial utterances of The Atlanta News for some time past have been calculated to create a disregard for the proper administration of the law and to promote the organization of citizens to act outside of the law in the punishment of crime;

...Resolved, That the sensationalism of the afternoon papers in the presentation of the criminal news to the public prior to the riots of Saturday night... deserves our severest condemnation..." [24]

Total fatalities

An unknown and disputed number of African Americans were killed in the conflict. At least two dozen African Americans were believed to have been killed. It was confirmed that there were two white deaths, one a woman who died of a heart attack after seeing mobs outside her house.

Discussions

On the following Monday and Tuesday, leading citizens of the white community, including the mayor, met to discuss the events and prevent any additional violence. The group included leaders of the black elite, helping establish a tradition of communication between these groups. But for decades the massacre was ignored or suppressed in the white community, and left out of official histories of the city.

Responses

The New York Times noted on September 30 that a letter writer to the Charleston News and Courier wrote in response to the riots:

Separation of the races is the only radical solution of the negro problem in this country. There is nothing new about it. It was the Almighty who established the bounds of the habitation of the races. The negroes were brought here by compulsion; they should be induced to leave here by persuasion. [25]

The New York Times analyzed the populations of the ten states in the South with the most African Americans, two of which were majority black, with two others nearly equal in populations, and African Americans totaling about 70% of the total white population. It noted practically the difficulties if so many workers would be lost, in addition to their businesses. [25]

As an outcome of the massacre, the African-American economy suffered, because of property losses, damage, and disruption. Some individual businesses were forced to close. The community made significant social changes, [26] pulling businesses from mixed areas, settling in majority-black neighborhoods (some of which was enforced by discriminatory housing practices into the 1960s), and changing other social patterns. In the years after the massacre, African Americans were most likely to live in predominately black communities, including those that developed west of the city near Atlanta University or in eastern downtown. Many black businesses dispersed from the center to the east, where the thriving black business district known as "Sweet Auburn" soon developed. [27]

Many African Americans rejected the accommodationist position of Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee Institute, believing that they had to be more forceful about protecting their communities and advancing their race. Some black Americans modified their opinions on the necessity of armed self-defense, even as many issued explicit warnings about the dangers of armed political struggle. Harvard-educated W. E. B. Du Bois, who was teaching at Atlanta University and supported leadership by the "Talented Tenth", purchased a shotgun after rioting broke out in the city. He said in response to the carnage, "I bought a Winchester double-barreled shotgun and two dozen rounds of shells filled with buckshot. If a white mob had stepped on the campus where I lived I would without hesitation have sprayed their guts over the grass." [26] As his position solidified in later years, circa 1906–1920, Du Bois argued that organized political violence by black Americans was folly. Still, in response to real-world threats on black people, Du Bois "was adamant about the legitimacy and perhaps the duty of self-defense, even where there [might be a] danger of spillover into political violence." [26]

Elected in 1906, Governor Hoke Smith fulfilled a campaign promise by proposing legislation in August 1907 for a literacy test for voting, which would disenfranchise most blacks and many poor whites through subjective administration by whites. In addition, the legislature included provisions for grandfather clauses to ensure whites were not excluded because of lack of literacy or the required amount of property, and for the Democratic Party to have a white primary, another means of exclusion. These provisions were passed by constitutional amendment in 1908, effectively disfranchising most blacks. [14] Racial segregation was already established by law. Both systems under Jim Crow largely continued into the late 1960s.

After the Great War (World War I), Atlanta worked to promote racial reconciliation and understanding by creating the Commission on Interracial Cooperation in 1919; it later evolved into the Southern Regional Council. [28] But most institutions of the city remained closed to African Americans. For instance, no African-American policemen were hired until 1948, after World War II.

Remembrance

The massacre was not covered in local histories and was ignored for decades. In 2006, on its 100th anniversary, the city and citizen groups marked the event with discussions, forums and related events such as "walking tours, public art, memorial services, numerous articles and three new books." [9] The next year, it was made part of the state's social studies curriculum for public schools. [9]

Representation in other media

See also

Related Research Articles

In the broader context of racism against Black Americans and racism in the United States, mass racial violence in the United States consists of ethnic conflicts and race riots, along with such events as:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tulsa race massacre</span> 1921 mass violence in Oklahoma, US

The Tulsa race massacre, also known as the Tulsa race riot or the Black Wall Street massacre, was a two-day-long white supremacist terrorist massacre that took place between May 31 and June 1, 1921, when mobs of white residents, some of whom had been appointed as deputies and armed by city government officials, attacked black residents and destroyed homes and businesses of the Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The event is considered one of the worst incidents of racial violence in American history. The attackers burned and destroyed more than 35 square blocks of the neighborhood—at the time one of the wealthiest black communities in the United States, colloquially known as "Black Wall Street".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elaine massacre</span> Anti-black violence in Elaine Arkansas in 1919

The Elaine massacre occurred on September 30–October 2, 1919 at Hoop Spur in the vicinity of Elaine in rural Phillips County, Arkansas. As many as several hundred African Americans and five white men were killed. Estimates of deaths made in the immediate aftermath of the Elaine Massacre by eyewitnesses range from 50 to "more than a hundred". Walter Francis White, an NAACP attorney who visited Elaine shortly after the incident, stated "... twenty-five Negroes killed, although some place the Negro fatalities as high as one hundred". More recent estimates in the 21st century of the number of black people killed during this violence are higher than estimates provided by the eyewitnesses, and have ranged into the hundreds. Robert Whitaker estimated 856 people were killed in his 2008 book on this topic. The white mobs were aided by federal troops and local terrorist organizations. Gov. Brough led a contingent of 583 US soldiers from Camp Pike, with a 12-gun machine gun battalion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rosewood massacre</span> 1923 massacre of African Americans in Florida, US

The Rosewood massacre was a racially motivated massacre of black people and the destruction of a black town that took place during the first week of January 1923 in rural Levy County, Florida, United States. At least six black people were killed, but eyewitness accounts suggested a higher death toll of 27 to 150. In addition, two white people were killed in self-defense by one of the victims. The town of Rosewood was destroyed in what contemporary news reports characterized as a race riot. Florida had an especially high number of lynchings of black men in the years before the massacre, including the lynching of Charles Strong and the Perry massacre in 1922.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red Summer</span> 1919 period of white supremacist terrorism and racial riots in many U.S. cities

Red Summer was a period in mid-1919 during which white supremacist terrorism and racial riots occurred in more than three dozen cities across the United States, and in one rural county in Arkansas. The term "Red Summer" was coined by civil rights activist and author James Weldon Johnson, who had been employed as a field secretary by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) since 1916. In 1919, he organized peaceful protests against the racial violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East St. Louis massacre</span> 1917 massacre of Black Americans by white mob in East St. Louis, Illinois

The East St. Louis massacre was a series of violent attacks on African Americans by white Americans in East St. Louis, Illinois between late May and early July of 1917. These attacks also displaced 6,000 African Americans and led to the destruction of approximately $400,000 worth of property. They occurred in East St. Louis, an industrial city on the east bank of the Mississippi River, directly opposite the city of St. Louis, Missouri. The July 1917 episode in particular was marked by white-led violence throughout the city. The multi-day rioting has been described as the "worst case of labor-related violence in 20th-century American history", and among the worst racial riots in U.S. history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching in the United States</span> Extrajudicial killings in the United States by mobs or vigilante groups

Lynching was the widespread occurrence of extrajudicial killings which began in the United States' pre–Civil War South in the 1830s and ended during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. Although the victims of lynchings were members of various ethnicities, after roughly 4 million enslaved African Americans were emancipated, they became the primary targets of white Southerners. Lynchings in the U.S. reached their height from the 1890s to the 1920s, and they primarily victimised ethnic minorities. In 1891, the largest single mass lynching in American history was perpetrated in New Orleans against Italian immigrants. Most of the lynchings occurred in the American South, as the majority of African Americans lived there, but racially motivated lynchings also occurred in the Midwest and border states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</span> Insurrection and successful coup by white supremacists in North Carolina, U.S.

The Wilmington insurrection of 1898, also known as the Wilmington massacre of 1898 or the Wilmington coup of 1898, was a coup d'état and a massacre which was carried out by white supremacists in Wilmington, North Carolina, United States, on Thursday, November 10, 1898. The white press in Wilmington originally described the event as a race riot caused by black people. Since the late 20th century and further study, the event has been characterized as a violent overthrow of a duly elected government by a group of white supremacists.

The Commission on Interracial Cooperation (1918–1944) was an organization founded in Atlanta, Georgia, December 18, 1918, and officially incorporated in 1929. Will W. Alexander, pastor of a local white Methodist church, was head of the organization. It was formed in the aftermath of violent race riots that occurred in 1917 in several southern cities. In 1944 it merged with the Southern Regional Council.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicago race riot of 1919</span> August 1919 racial tensions in Chicago, Illinois, US

The Chicago race riot of 1919 was a violent racial conflict between white Americans and Black Americans that began on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois, on July 27 and ended on August 3, 1919. During the riot, 38 people died. Over the week, injuries attributed to the episodic confrontations stood at 537, two thirds Black and one third white; and between 1,000 and 2,000 residents, most of them Black, lost their homes. Due to its sustained violence and widespread economic impact, it is considered the worst of the scores of riots and civil disturbances across the United States during the "Red Summer" of 1919, so named because of its racial and labor violence. It was also one of the worst riots in the history of Illinois.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Charles riots</span>

The Robert Charles riots of July 24–27, 1900 in New Orleans, Louisiana were sparked after Afro-American laborer Robert Charles fatally shot a white police officer during an altercation and escaped arrest. A large manhunt for him ensued, and a white mob started rioting, attacking blacks throughout the city. The manhunt for Charles began on Monday, July 23, 1900, and ended when Charles was killed on Friday, July 27, shot by a special police volunteer. The mob shot him hundreds more times, and beat the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching of Jim McMillan</span>

Jim McMillan was lynched in Bibb County, Alabama on June 18, 1919.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia</span> Racially motivated violence and subsequent racial cleansing in Forysth County in 1912

In Forsyth County, Georgia, in September 1912, two separate alleged attacks on white women in the Cumming area resulted in black men being accused as suspects. First, a white woman reportedly awoke to find a black man in her bedroom; then days later, a teenage white woman was beaten and raped, later dying of her injuries.

The Ocoee massacre was a mass racial violence event that saw a white mob attack numerous African-American residents in the northern parts of Ocoee, Florida, a town located in Orange County near Orlando. Previously inhabited by the Seminoles, Ocoee was the home to 255 African-American residents and 560 white residents according to the 1920 Census. The massacre took place on November 2, 1920, the day of the U.S. presidential election leaving a lasting political, but also community impact, as the 1930 census shows 1,180 whites, 11 Native Americans, and 2 African Americans (0.2%).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Washington race riot of 1919</span>

The Washington race riot of 1919 was civil unrest in Washington, D.C. from July 19, 1919, to July 24, 1919. Starting July 19, white men, many in the armed forces, responded to the rumored arrest of a black man for rape of a white woman with four days of mob violence against black individuals and businesses. They rioted, randomly beat black people on the street, and pulled others off streetcars for attacks. When police refused to intervene, the black population fought back. The city closed saloons and theaters to discourage assemblies. Meanwhile, the four white-owned local papers, including the Washington Post, fanned the violence with incendiary headlines and calling in at least one instance for mobilization of a "clean-up" operation. After four days of police inaction, President Woodrow Wilson ordered 2,000 federal troops to regain control in the nation's capital. But a violent summer rainstorm had more of a dampening effect. When the violence ended, 15 people had died: at least 10 white people, including two police officers; and around 5 black people. Fifty people were seriously wounded and another 100 less severely wounded. It was one of the few times in 20th-century riots of whites against blacks that white fatalities outnumbered those of black people. The unrest was also one of the Red Summer riots in America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berry Washington</span> African American who was lynched in the U.S.

Berry Washington was a 72-year-old black man who was lynched in Milan, Georgia, in 1919. He was in jail after killing a white man who was attacking two young girls. He was taken from jail and lynched by a mob.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Johnson–Jeffries riots</span> 1910 nationwide race rioting in the U.S. following an interracial boxing match

The Johnson–Jeffries riots refer to the dozens of race riots that occurred throughout the United States after African-American boxer Jack Johnson defeated white boxer James J. Jeffries in a boxing match termed the "Fight of the Century". Johnson became the first black World Heavyweight champion in 1908 which made him unpopular with the predominantly white audience of boxing. Jeffries, a former heavyweight champion came out of retirement to fight Johnson and was nicknamed the "Great White Hope". After Johnson defeated Jeffries on July 4, 1910, many white people felt humiliated and began attacking black people who were celebrating Johnson's victory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slocum massacre</span> 1910 event in the U.S. state of Texas

The Slocum Massacre occurred on July 29–30, 1910, in Slocum, Texas, an unincorporated community in Anderson County near Palestine in East Texas. Only six deaths were officially confirmed, but some 22 were reported by major newspapers. This is the official count, and it is estimated as many as one hundred African Americans were killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1919 Lynching in Montgomery, Alabama</span> African Americans were lynched in the U.S.

Miles Phifer and Robert Crosky were lynched in Montgomery, Alabama for allegedly assaulting a white woman.

References

  1. ↑ Kuhn, C. & Mixon, G., "Atlanta Race Massacre of 1906" Georgia Humanities (2022)
  2. ↑ Charles Crowe, "Racial Massacre in Atlanta: September 22, 1906." Journal of Negro History 54.2 (1969): 150–173. online
  3. 1 2 "Un lynchage monstre" (September 24, 1906) Le Petit Journal
  4. ↑ "The Race Riots in Georgia". Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Aberdeen Press and Journal. September 25, 1906. p. 6.
  5. ↑ "Anti-Negro Riots". London, England. London Evening Standard. September 26, 1906. p. 7.
  6. ↑ Burns, Rebecca (September 2006). "Four Days of Rage". Atlanta Magazine: 141–145.
  7. ↑ "Whites and Negroes Killed at Atlanta; Mobs of Blacks Retaliate for Riots – Two Whites Killed; Many Negroes Surrounded; Two of Band That Killed an Officer Try to Escape, but Are Captured and Lynched." (September 25, 1906) New York Times
  8. ↑ "The 1906 Atlanta Race Massacre: How Fearmongering Led to Violence". November 8, 2022.
  9. 1 2 3 Shaila Dewan, "100 Years Later, a Painful Episode Is Observed at Last", New York Times, 24 September 2006; accessed 30 March 2018
  10. 1 2 Mixon, Gregory, and Clifford Kuhn. "Atlanta Race Riot of 1906", New Georgia Encyclopedia, 29 October 2015; accessed 26 March 2018
  11. 1 2 Steinberg, Arthur K. "Atlanta Race Riot (1906)." Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia [ permanent dead link ], edited by Steven L. Danver, vol. 2, ABC-CLIO, 2011, pp. 681–684
  12. 1 2 3 Burns 2006:4–5
  13. ↑ Walter C. Rucker, James N. Upton 2007. Encyclopedia of American Race Riots. Greenwood Publishing Group pp. 14–20
  14. 1 2 "August 21, 1907: Literacy Test Proposed", This Day in Georgia History, Georgia Info, University Libraries
  15. ↑ Leiter, Andrew. "Thomas Dixon, Jr.: Conflicts in History and Literature". Documenting the American South. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
  16. ↑ "Rioting Feared by Savannah". Atlanta Constitution . September 25, 1906. p. 3.
  17. ↑ "The Clansman Barred by Macon". Atlanta Constitution . September 25, 1906. p. 3.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "Atlanta Mobs Kills Ten More Negroes; Maybe 25 or 30 – Assaults on Women the Cause; Slain Wherever Found; Cars Stopped in Streets, Victims Torn from Them; Militamen Called Out; Trolley Systems Stopped to Keep the Mob from Reaching the Negro Quarter", New York Times, 23 September 1906
  19. ↑ When Blacks Succeed: The Atlanta Race Riot of 1906 (2006), part 1
  20. 1 2 3 "Rioting Goes On Despite Troops; Negro Lynched, Another Shot, in Atlanta; Saturday's Dead Eleven; Exodus of Black Servants Troubles City; Mayor Blames Negroes; Leading Citizens Condemn the Rioters and Demand Cessation of Race Agitation – Many Injured", New York Times (September 24, 1906)
  21. ↑ "3,000 Georgia Troops Keep Peace in Atlanta; Soldiers Disarming Negroes in All Parts of the City; Hundreds Caught in Raid; Clark University Professors Among Prisoners – Whites and Negroes Meet to Demand Peace", (September 26, 1906 ) New York Times
  22. ↑ "Georgia National Guard correspondence regarding the Atlanta Race Riot". Incoming Correspondence, Adjutant General, Defense, RG 22-1-17, Georgia Archives. Digital Library of Georgia. Retrieved June 19, 2016.[ permanent dead link ]
  23. ↑ "The Atlanta Riots" (September 25, 1906) New York Times
  24. ↑ "Paper Blamed for Riots; Grand Jury Accuses Atlanta News of Stirring Up Race Feeling" (September 28, 1906) New York Times
  25. 1 2 "Deporting the Negroes" (September 30, 1906) New York Times
  26. 1 2 3 Johnson, Nicholas (2014). Negroes and The Gun: The Black Tradition of Arms. Amherst, New York: Prometheus. pp. 151–157. ISBN   978-1-61614-839-3.
  27. ↑ Myrick-Harris, Clarissa (2006). "The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement in Atlanta, 1880–1910". Perspectives. 44 (8): 28. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
  28. ↑ Newman, Harvey K.; Crunk, Glenda (2008). "Religious Leaders in the Aftermath of Atlanta's 1906 Race Riot". Georgia Historical Quarterly. 92 (4): 460–485. Retrieved February 14, 2018.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.