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Two Mexican-American men, Francisco Arias and José Chamales, lynched in Santa Cruz, California, in 1877The lynching of Frank McManus in Minneapolis, Minnesota for rape in 1882
This is a list of lynching victims in the United States. While the definition has changed over time, lynching is often defined as the summary execution of one or more persons without due process of law by a group of people organized internally and not authorized by a legitimate government. Lynchers may claim to be issuing punishment for an alleged crime; however, they are not a judicial body nor deputized by one. Lynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 19th century, following the emancipation of slaves; they declined in the 1920s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968.[1] Most lynchings were of African-American men in the Southern United States, but women were also lynched. More than 73 percent of lynchings in the post–Civil War period occurred in the Southern states.[2] White lynchings of black people also occurred in the Midwestern United States and the Border States, especially during the 20th-century Great Migration of black people out of the Southern United States. The purpose was to enforce white supremacy and intimidate black people through racial terrorism.[3]
According to Ida B. Wells and the Tuskegee University, most lynching victims were accused of murder or attempted murder. Rape or attempted rape was the second most common accusation; such accusations were often pretexts for lynching black people who violated Jim Crow etiquette or engaged in economic competition with white people. Sociologist Arthur F. Raper investigated one hundred lynchings during the 1930s and estimated that approximately one-third of the victims were falsely accused.[4][5]
On a per capita basis, lynchings were also common in California and the Old West, especially of Latinos, although they represented less than 10% of the national total. Native Americans, Asian Americans and Italian-Americans[6][7] were also lynched.[8] Other ethnicities, including Finnish-Americans[9] and German-Americans[10] were also lynched occasionally. At least six law officers were killed trying to stop lynch mobs, three of whom succeeded at the cost of their own lives, including Deputy Sheriff Samuel Joseph Lewis in 1882,[11] and two law officers in 1915 in South Carolina.[12] Three law officers were themselves hanged by lynch mobs (Henry Plummer in 1864; James Murray in 1897; Carl Etherington in 1910).[citation needed]
Killing and robbing of Americans, including Latinos[16]
[17]Band of horse thiefs and murderers, who "Tormented the central coast", "frequently boasted of killing and robbing Americans"[18]. They were taken by vigilantes out of jail and hanged from a makeshift gallows
Alleged murder and robbery of wealthy white farmer, "Mr. Simpson."
Thompson and Despano were two of four men jailed for allegedly murdering a Mr. Simpson. A mob broke into the jail which was abandoned by the jailor. To avoid lynching, one of the four, Elias Scraggs, slit his own throat. Thompson and Despano were taken by the mob and hanged from a tree. After seeing Scraggs, Thompson and Despano die, a fourth man after "a good deal of reluctance" avoided lynching by implicating five others, including Simpson's own son-in-law, though the son-in-law was "generally considered innocent."[20]
In response to the murder of a white man, and "in keeping with local custom, a slave man was selected to be killed in retribution".
Adam was tried and convicted of the murder of a white man. He was represented by Ossian Hart, who appealed the conviction. The Florida State Supreme Court declared a mistrial, following which a mob broke into the jail, seized Adam and hanged him.[21]:269
Believed to have assaulted a white woman in her home.
While a trial was in progress, preparations to lynch the victim were made outside. When constables walked out with Hamilton, the crowd seized and hanged him.[22]
A sheriff who was dragged from his house and lynched; the only evidence of his alleged crimes was in an account written by a lynch mob member to justify lynching; 130 years later Plummer was posthumously tried; the jury reached a split decision (six to six) and a mistrial was declared.[25]
Attempted murder of his employer's wife following a wage dispute
Taylor was a former slave, and had been a teenage soldier for the Union. A mob dragged him from a jail, tortured him and hanged him from a tree, and mutilated and decapitated his body; no one was prosecuted. In 2018, a local park was named the "John Taylor Memorial Park" after him.[27][29]
Coleman, formerly enslaved by White Mormon people, was bludgeoned to death by an unknown number of assailants. His throat was deeply slit and body dumped with a note pinned to his chest stating "Notice to all niggers! Take warning!! Leave white women alone!!!"[30][31]
A masked mob broke into the jail cell with sledge hammers, dragged McLain and Gilbert Quinn from the jail and hanged both from a gum tree with the same rope.[34][35]
A masked mob broke into the jail cell with sledge hammers, dragged Quinn and Tom McLain from the jail and hanged both from a gum tree with the same rope.[34][35]
A group of masked men appeared at both the rear and front doors of Samuel Bierfield's store. When he refused to open the back door, they broke in. He ran out the front, where he encountered the rest of the group. The masked men shot Bierfield five times. They mortally wounded his black clerk Lawrence Bowman, who had been with him at the store. Henry Morton, another black man, had been sitting and chatting with the pair and escaped without injury during the melee. Bierfield pleaded for his life on the street in front of his dry goods store but was shot to death by the masked men at close range.
Moore was accused of having other "nepharious designs" not carried out after he was frightened away by the screams of the woman from whom he allegedly took money. Moore was before a magistrate when a crowd took him away and hanged him naked from a tree.[36]
Johnson was held in protective custody at jail so he could testify against a prisoner in jail named Beavers. Sheriff John H. Wisner killed by mob who then killed prisoner[42] It is believed Johnson was killed so that he could not testify against Beavers.[43]
A one-thousand-member vigilance committee accused the two men of shooting and robbing an old man named George Lenhart. Their fate was decided on the courthouse steps by mock trial, because "the law was tedious, expensive, and uncertain." When law officers interrupted the proceedings, they were imprisoned by the mob.[44]
After Tiburcio Vásquez robbed a stage on the San Benito Road, a group of vigilantes seized José Castro, a local saloon owner, and hanged him from a tree based on the flimsy suspicion that he was associated with the bandit.[48]
Killed when Jail burned down by mob; according to a member of mob participant John Wesley Hardin, the local coroner (also allegedly part of the mob) rendered a verdict that Eli had died after setting fire to the jail himself,[54]
Taylor, Rufus P. "Scrap"; Tuggle, John Alfred "Kute"; and White, James
Three men were members of the Taylor faction in the Sutton-Taylor feud. Members of the Sutton faction lynched the three men in revenge for murder of Sutton leader William E Sutton in Indianola, Texas on March 22, 1874
Simms was shackled and in jail when a mob searched the jailor for his keys and took Simms away, irons and all, and hanged him from a tree. “Many of the lynchers were painted black and some were masked.”.[57]
Arrested for assaulting Miss Alice Sweeny on August 26, 1878
Green was being held at the jail in Upper Marlboro. Threats of lynching were openly made and were held off by the vigilance of Sheriff James N.W. Wilson. On September 1, 1878, a band of masked men removed Green from the jail and took him a mile outside of town to the corner of Queen Anne's Road and Hills Lane. There a noose was placed around his neck and he was hanged 15 feet in the air from a cherry tree. His body remained dangling from the tree and was observed the next morning.[62]
Two of the five Horrell Brothers, outlaw brothers best known for their involvement in the Horrell–Higgins feud. While awaiting trial for robbery and murder in Texas, they were shot to death by a mob of armed vigilantes who stormed the jail.
Accused of assaulting and raping Mrs. Moses Ables, Easley was taken by force from the jail and lynched during the day within the city limits of Jacksonville.[64]
Local petty thieves accused without evidence of stealing a saddle and harness. Kidnapped from jail and hanged by 30 members of the local Masonic Temple.
After being hit on the head with a pistol by Thomas Barksdell, Johnson retaliated by threatening several people with a shotgun and allegedly preventing a doctor from reaching a woman who was in labor.[73]
Mr. Agirer had filed a complaint after one of the Anglo men had shot at his dog. In retaliation, the Anglos tracked Mr. Agirer down and fatally shot him in front of his wife[72][86]
Encarnación García was a nephew of the bandido Tiburcio Vásquez. He was arrested for stabbing another man to death following a card game at the Los Gatos Saloon. A mob broke into the jail, seized García and hanged him from the Los Gatos Creek bridge.[88][89]
After police severely kicked and beat him they handed him over to a White mob of up to 2,000 people who hung Harvey in front of the city jail then dragged his body down the main city street.[91][92]
Convicted of assault and rape after one minute deliberation, his attorneys intended to file an appeal; 75 masked men broke Cooper out of jail and hanged him from a tree.[96][99]
Found hanged from a tree three days later. Public opinion divided on whether Lockwood committed suicide or was lynched. Coroner's jury returned a verdict of suicide.[100]
Fires had been appearing around Oakdale and McCutchen had allegedly been caught in the act of setting fire to a barn. McCutchen was arrested and while being transferred to Modesto jail, a mob overpowered the constable and hanged McCutchen from a tree.[105]
Jake Stafford was found dead two miles away from the road he was on; one of the main suspects of murdering Mr. Stafford was Mexican-American Salazar Santos. When the news spread across the city, a mob hanged Salazar due to the suspicion of him being the murderer[106]
A mob broke into his jail cell with sledge hammers, dragged him from the jail with a noose around his neck, beat and shot him to death, then hanged his corpse from a bridge.[27][112]
Lynched despite calls from his accuser that she could not confirm he was guilty. Sheriff eventually determined he had been innocent, and another man was later arrested.
On February 4, 1891, three white men took Jesus Salceda and hanged him from an oak tree for supposedly seducing one of the white men's daughters. They later found out that they had mistaken Jesus Salceda for another Mexican.[116]
Three had been acquitted; three had a mistrial; five were never tried. Lynching organized by local leaders, including future mayor Walter C. Flower and future governor John M. Parker. Grand jury brought no charges.
The Governor and the sheriff tried unsuccessfully to quiet the crowd in front of the courthouse. Pieces of the lynching rope were sold as souvenirs. Despite 16 wounds to his body and three broken vertebrae, Coroner said he died of "fright". Grand jury declined to indict.
Arrested for the fatal assault of Toccoa City Marshal James Carter.[124]
Due to threats against the suspects, they were transferred to a jail in Clarkesville, 15 miles east of Toccoa. A week after their arrest, a mob surrounded the jail, overpowered the guards, and dragged the three suspects out of their cells. Using chains and padlocks, the three victims were hanged from a single tree.[125]
Accused of the rape of 11-year-old Nettie (Nellie) Silcox on May 16, 1892
By 9:00p.m. on May 19, nearly 1,000 men and women gathered at the jail. A body of masked men carrying an assortment of weapons demanded the Sheriff open the jail's door. When the Sheriff refused, the men used a sledgehammer to breach the door rushed in, and swiftly overpowered the Sheriff and other officers on duty. The mob placed a rope around Taylor's neck and dragged him down the steps and out of the jail into Cross Street. They hanged him from a tree just outside the city limits at a point between the Rockwell House and the old Armstrong Hotel.
Despite no evidence that he was the murderer, he was taken from jail and hanged and his dead body cremated. Investigated by Journalist Iba B. Wells.[133]
October 12, 1895, 10 masked man went into the jail where Suiato was being held, took him to the banks of the Nueces River, where they hanged him from a tree and riddled his body with bullets[136]
"Horrible fury of the mob...500 horsemen." Hanged from bridge until dead, taken down and hanged a second time from a telegraph pole at the fairground, "at the request of the murdered woman's husband, John William Cain". Body and cabin burned.[137]
Saladino was accused of murdering a wealthy merchant. Arena and Venturella happened to have been in the same prison, accused of a different murder. All were rounded up together and lynched to "teach the lawless Italians a salutary lesson." After the lynching, another person confessed to the murder for which Arena and Venturella had been lynched.[141]
Wright Smith was identified by Mary Morrison as the man who broke into her house and assaulted her. Mob broke Smith out of jail and riddled his body with bullets.[57]
Sicilian immigrant grocery store owners, the DiFatta brothers, quarreled with a local doctor. The doctor fired his pistol at Carlo and was immediately shot and injured by Giuseppe. Sicilian immigrants Cerami and Fiducia were not involved in the dispute and had simply been nearby when the lynching occurred; they were rounded up and lynched alongside the DiFatta brothers because they were Italian.[149]
Accused of assaulting white woman and killing her son
Suspect Richard Young was sought on March 27, 1902, injuring Mrs Fountain and mortally injuring her son Dower Fountain.[166] Victim was hanged and burned in a swamp[167][168] However, victim was not suspect Richard Young-since Richard Young and accomplice James Stewart were captured, tried and sentenced to prison in June 1902[169]
After being released from jail, he was given a worthless horse and saddle, while on his way to the reservation he grew up in, he spotted a young horse that he wanted. A group of men took over Yellow Wolf and hanged him from a tree near White River.[171]
Vazquez was found hanging from the tree and was suspected to be one of the Mexicans stealing cattle from the ranch of Will Parker, who discovered the 17 year old. Three Mexicans were also caught nearby skinning stolen beef, with which they tried to escape arrest, but one of the Mexicans who did was fatally shot.[175]
Suspect had been arrested for living with woman not his wife
When mob burned the man's house down, Constable W. J. Monneyhan placed man under arrest in his own home to protect him. Officer was killed by mob, who then shot and killed prisoner.[177][178][179]
After assaulting one of the farmers' wives, Munoz ran off where officers captured him and tried protecting him, but were overpowered by the mob of 40+ people who dragged him to into the woods, where they shot and hanged Munoz.[195]
Sheriff and two others sentenced to three months in jail, three others to two months, for abetting the lynching. Only criminal case ever with direct involvement of the U.S. Supreme Court; see United States v. Shipp
Fred Coker, Horace B. Duncan, and William (Bill) Allen were lynched by large mob of white citizens, though they were innocent. All three suspects were hanged from the Gottfried Tower, which held a replica of the Statue of Liberty, and burned in the courthouse square by a mob of more than 2,000 citizens. Duncan's and Coker's employer testified that they were at his business at the time of the crime against Edwards, and other evidence suggested that they and Allen were all innocent. After the mass lynching in Springfield, many African Americans left the area in a large exodus. Judge Azariah W. Lincoln called for a grand jury, but no one was prosecuted. The proceedings were covered by national newspapers, the New York Times and Los Angeles Times.
Was arrested/held as a witness for one of three defendants accused of rape and murder of a white woman. The three defendants were sentenced to death, but the governor commuted to life one man's sentence. Angry at the lighter sentence, a mob seized Richardson from the jail and hanged him from a train trestle over the Coosa River.[198][199][200][201]
Nease Gillepsie, John Gillepsie, "Jack" Dillingham, Henry Lee, and George Irwin
The five men were arrested and accused of the murder several members of a local white family, the Lyerlys. When returned for a court hearing and while under heavy guard, a mob led by George Hall pulled Dillingham and the Gillepsies, father and son, from their jail cells. They were paraded through the town and hanged from a tree[202] at the Henderson Ballground near the corner of Long and Henderson Streets.[203] George Hall, a leading member of the mob, was convicted of second degree murder for his involvement and was sentenced to 15 years in prison with hard labor.[203] He was granted clemency by Governor William Walton Kitchin in October 1911.[204]
Attempted murder and rape of 21-year-old Lillie Davis
After Shaw was identified by Davis, he was arrested and taken to the county jail. An angry white mob broke into the jail and took Shaw, lynching him in Plaza Ferdinand VII.[225]
Riley, Joseph; Jones, Virgil; Jones, Robert; Jones, Thomas
Victims expressed approval of their lodge brother Rufus Browder's killing his employer.
Rufus Browder killed his employer with an axe after being shot in the chest. Browder was arrested and sent to Louisville. The lynching victims expressed approval for his actions and were jailed for disturbing the peace. On August 1, 1908, a mob demanded release of the men, and lynched them from a tree. A note pinned to one of the men read, "Let this be a warning to you niggers to let white people alone or you will go the same way."[226][227]
Brooks was accused of raping Mary Beuvens, a two-and-a-half year old girl
On March 3, 1910, Brooks was in the Dallas County Courthouse to face trial. A mob tied a rope around his neck and pulled him out of the courthouse window. Brooks landed on his head on the street below. He was dragged by a car to Elks Arch at the intersection of Main Street and Akard Street. There the mob hanged him from a telephone pole.[234]
Antonio Rodriguez was a 20 year old migrant worker from Mexico. On November 2, Antonio was accused of murdering a White Texan, which led to him getting arrested and jailed. On November 3, 1910, a mob took him from his jail cell and burned him alive.[235][236]
Etherington had been sworn in as a law officer by the Granville town mayor to enforce "prohibition" of alcohol in a "wet town"; shot and killed a man who assaulted him; officer taken from jail and lynched by mob in Newark, Ohio[237]
Three men (Eugene Marshall, Wade Patterson, James West) lynched at the same time after the mob broke into jail after threatening the jailor for the keys. All three were hanged from the Chesapeake and Ohio bridge. One rope for two men (Patterson and West) was used, which snapped. Afterward, they were shot multiple times.[36]
Patterson, Wade
unknown
African-American
Shelbyville
Shelbyville
Kentucky
January 16, 1911
Charged with detaining Miss Elizabeth Rubel, a white nineteen-year old Shelbyville girl
Three men (Eugene Marshall, Wade Patterson, James West) lynched at the same time after the mob broke into jail after threatening the jailor for the keys. All three were hanged from the Chesapeake and Ohio bridge. One rope for two men (Patterson and West) was used, which snapped. Afterward, they were shot multiple times.[36]
West, James
unknown
African-American
Shelbyville
Shelbyville
Kentucky
January 16, 1911
Charged with detaining Miss Mary Coley, a young white girl.
Three men (Eugene Marshall, Wade Patterson, James West) lynched at the same time after the mob broke into jail after threatening the jailor for the keys. All three were hanged from the Chesapeake and Ohio bridge. One rope for two men (Patterson and West) was used, which snapped. Afterward, they were shot multiple times.[36]
After trying to escape a mob that surrounded the 14-year-old boy, he ended up killing a German man named Charles Zieschang which led to the 14 year old's arrest. While being transported to the jailhouse, four men intercepted the two people taking Antonio and successfully lynched Antonio Gomez.[235]
Accused of insulting a white woman over the telephone.
Crowd of around 75 men and boys gained access to Jones's cell and marched him to the outskirts of town, where he was forced to climb a telephone pole and was hanged.[245][246]
Johnson was to be transported to Annapolis for his safety that same day, but those plans were delayed. Around two o'clock in the morning on December 26, 1911, a mob broke into the unguarded jail where Johnson was kept. When Johnson fought back preventing a noose from being placed on his neck, he was beaten with irons and shot.[57][248]
Postcard of victim, postmarked 1911, appeared in Crisis Magazine January 1912 p.118[247]
2 Unknown men
African American
Prior December 1911
Picture of victims appeared in Crisis Magazine twice; first, a cropped picture of one victim in December 1911 in article "Jesus Christ in Georgia" (p.70)[247] and a full picture of both victims in January 1912 p.122[247]
Shot and killed by a mob led by the victim's husband who identified Green as the murderer.[255] Samuel Spicer Jr. would later be convicted of the murder of his wife, Nobie, and sentenced to life in prison. He was paroled in December 1929, but then fled.[256]
Murder of John C. Williams, Wife of the Deputy Chancery Clerk
Dragged from jail and hanged at a nearby tree, upon the alleged statement of two African-American women;[259] the women who made the statement were arrested the next day for making a false statement, according to one source[260] and/or disappeared.[261] The day after Williams was lynched, a second African-American, named in different reports as 'Divel Rucker', 'Dizell Rucker' and 'Dibrell Tucker; was lynched and burned at the stake on the assumption that he, not Williams, was the actual murderer[262][263]
Murder of John C. Williams, Wife of the Deputy Chancery Clerk
The day after Andrew Williams was lynched by hanging for this murder, Rucker was presumed by the mob to be the actual murderer and, allegedly, confessed to the crime. He was tied to an iron stake, covered with tar, and set afire. The family of the victim shot him as he was burning[264] According to the New York Sun report, "The Rucker lynching was the most spectacular in the history of Mississippi and there was no attempt at concealment or evasion."[265][263]
On July 28, 1911, Leon Martinez was tried for the murder of a white woman. They used the forced confessions as evidence of him committing murder and he was sentenced to death but it was postponed due to the outrage. On May 11, 1914, Leon was executed by hanging.
Isidro was accused to have choke Harry Hinton to death and escaped from jail. He was found riddle with bullets after his escape.[269]
Turner, Allen
47
African-American
Western area of Parish (county)
Union
Louisiana
1914
Accused of Assaulting a white man (J.P. McDougall)[270]
J.P. McDougall was whipping Allen Turner's son. Allen was defending his son. Taken from deputy sheriff and shot to death. It is said that Allen's body was then dragged through the roads of Spearsville.
After hearing news of Luis De La Rose had been killed in battle, Sheriff Vann went to Mission, Texas to see if the news was true, on the way, American troops found the bodies of 11 Mexicans. Commander Blocksom ordered an investigation to investigate the killings. He believed that the Mexicans were not Bandits and were peaceful Mexicans who were killed due to race hatred after the Progreso battle.[274]
Orozco successfully executed a planned escape to Sierra Blanca where he met up with leaders and future cabinet members where they crossed into Dick Love's ranch who accused them of stealing his horses and later got the Rangers and other law enforcement to look for the men where they found the men camping in a box canyon where they killed all 5 of the men.
Jesus and Antonio went to report that a few of their horses had been stolen to the Texas Rangers. After they reported that stuff to the Rangers and left, Ranger Henry Ransom followed Jesus and Antonio and shot both of them dead. Henry Ransom had called for the bodies to be left in the open to spread fear across the town.[236]
Two of the Mexicans were taken from San Benito jail and the other four Mexicans were taken from Mercedes where they shot to death and bodies burned on the side of a road.[276]
Two white police officers interrogated the brothers and accused them of being outlaws. They hung the brothers from a tree and left their bodies to rot in the desert gulch.[268]
While being transported by Sheriff Frank Carr, a group of seven to eight men held the Sheriff at gun point, taking Adolfo and later hanging him from a tree.[278]
Washington confessed and a jury found him guilty. Dragged behind car, castrated, fingers cut off, ear cut off, burned alive. Professionally photographed; pictures sold as postcards. Lynching of "political value" to Sheriff and to the judge who presided over his trial. "On the way to the scene of the burning, people on every hand took a hand in showing their feelings in the matter by striking the Negro with anything obtainable, some struck him with shovels, bricks, clubs and others stabbed him and cut him until when he was strung up his body was a solid color of red."[291]:5
Two rangers had taken Garcia into custody for a theft investigation. The next day they let Garcia go, and were last seen escorting him on a mule. Garcia was never seen again. A month after the interrogation, bones and Garcia's clothing were found beside the road where the Rangers claimed to have let Garcia go. The Rangers were arrested for murder, freed on bail, and acquitted due to lack of evidence.[295]:80
Dentist had affairs with both sisters, who were pregnant, likely with his child; the brothers had romantic interest in the girls. After the lynching the babies were seen squirming in their mothers bellies.[300]
Publicly opposed and threatened legal action against white people who had murdered her husband, unfairly accused (according to her) of killing an abusive landowner.
Hanged upside down from a tree, doused her in gasoline and motor oil and set her on fire. Turner was still alive when a member of the mob split her abdomen open with a knife and her unborn child fell on the ground. The baby was stomped and crushed as it fell to the ground. Turner's body was riddled with hundreds of bullets.
The two Mexicans natives were accused of shooting and killing a patrolman Jeff Evans, which they were arrested and charged for. A mob broke into the jail captured and hung from the girders of a Bridge.[306]
Convicted by all-white jury of attempting to shoot a white farmer; case before Georgia Court of Appeals.
Mob of 60 stopped car of sheriff who was driving him for protection to nearest large city, Macon. Driven to a bridge in Jasper County and shot to death. Governor was "livid".[311]:233–234
Taken to the scene of the crime, his body riddled with bullets and burned at the stake. Several thousand persons witnessed the scene. Controversial as the local Black communisty "thanked" the mob for just killing Cox and not attacking their community.[312]
He was arrested and a mob of about 1,000 white people stormed the jail and broke down the door with sledgehammers. A noose was placed around his neck and he was dragged by horse to the town square where he was hanged.[322] Four people were later arrested for the lynching, murder indictments were served for Willie Howell, Charlie Lansdale, Fritz Boyd, and Francis Flanagan.[323][324][325]
"The biggest newspaper in the state, Jackson Daily News, carried headlines announcing the exact time and place of the coming orgy.[327] Ten thousand people answered the paper's invitation and they were addressed by the District Attorney, T. W. Wilson, while the lynching was going on."[328]:9[329]
Taken from jail by mob, given mock trials, beaten and hanged from light-post.[336]Three members of the mob received prison terms of up to 5 years for rioting, albeit none of them were convicted of murder.[citation needed]
Owned a 50 arch farm which caused jealousy from some white neighbors.
Jesse Eley was returning from the market in Murfreesboro, North Carolina. He bought some grain for his cattle. He had two workers riding with him in his horse-drawn wagon. As he reached the outskirts of town, he entered a path that went into a wooded area. Several men were hiding in the woods entrance waiting for him. As his wagon entered the woods, the men stopped Jesse. They began beating him and eventually hanged him on a tree. Jesse's workers took off running. One of them ran back to Jesse's farm to let the family know what was happening. The family got a horse-drawn buggy and went to rescue him. By the time they got there, Jesse was barely alive. They found him because he raised one of his legs in the air to let them know where he was.
Jesse had a hole in his head, and his stomach was cut open. His throat was seizing up because of the hanging. As they put him into the buggy, he died. [340][341]
Bill McAllister was killed by gunshot. The news of this lynching did not reach the national media until January 8, 1922, and so it is recorded as the first lynching of 1922 in America.[343] The United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary recorded five lynching incidents recorded in December 1921, none of which in South Carolina
A charred body, of a white man, was discovered on January 28, 1922, by H.T. Raines. Investigators determined that he was burned a few weeks earlier. The body was strung between two trees and a large pile of wood was piled around him. It was reported that the body was most likely Drew Connor who went missing Christmas 1921 but the only clues to the identity were some overall buttons found in the ash.[344][345]
Alfred Williams was lynched on March 12, 1922, in Harlem, Georgia for allegedly shooting and wounding L.O. Anderson, a white farmer. Anderson recovered from his wounds.
Brown Culpepper was living in Holly Grove, Louisiana with his two kids, his wife having moved to Natchez two years earlier. On Saturday, March 11, 1922, a party of unmasked men came to the house he was staying at; when they did not find him, they went to the house of J.R. Hutto where Culpepper was visiting. They called for him to come out but when he didn't, they stormed into the house and shot Culpepper dead.
Sheriff Jesse Gilbert of Winnsboro arrested eight people for involvement in the murder: P. M. Usery Sr., Albert Farrington, P. M. Usery Jr., J. C. Farrington, Charley Parson, George Wactor, Charlie Calendor and Eugene Bradshaw.[344][346]
The wife of a popular farmer, Mrs Dewey, was attacked. She was able to yell for help and the attacker fled. Bloodhounds found a man, Jerry Ingram, 8 miles (13km) from the scene of the attack and he was lynched.[347][348]
Body of a man chained/tied to a tree was discovered in the Arkansas River near Okay, Oklahoma. He was wearing clothes of "an excellent grade" and had a handkerchief with the initial "B"[349][350][344]
The two white men, Claude and Audey Prowell, who were initially arrested, were released and the sheriff released a statement that they were not involved in the murder of Eula Ausley.[2] Author Monte Akers in his book "Flames After Midnight: Murder, Vengeance and the Desolation of a Texas Community", concluded that McKinley "Snap" Curry conspired with Claude and Audey Prowell to kill and murder Eula Ausley and that Mose Jones and Johnny Cornish were innocent. Tom Cornish was killed on May 8, 1922.
Joe Pemberton was in the Bossier Parish jail in Benton, Louisiana for shooting two Black women. A white mob surrounded the jail, overpowered Deputy Sheriff J.A. Wilson, and took Pemberton. His body was later found hanging from a tree in Black Bayou swamp, 2 miles (3.2km) from Benton.[353][354][344]
Consensual relationship with 26-year-old Ethel Skittel
Hanged by white mob. After the event, the Miller County Liberal wrote that "hundreds of the citizens throughout the county regret this lynching. Many have said [Ethel Skittel] was guiltier than Jake."[344]
Three men had seized William Anderson and chained him inside a car. While waiting to drop him off to the police outside the Moultrie, Georgia jail, an unknown man jumped in and sped off. Andersen's bullet-ridden body was later found a few miles away next to the Ellenton, Georgia Reedy Creek Baptist Church. The Colquit county grand Jury was called into special session to investigate the people behind the lynching but was quickly adjourned due to lack of evidence.[355][356][344]
The newspaper The Little River News reported that West was probably shot and killed "after he flourished a pistol and threatened the men who intended only to whip him."[357][344]
Killing of Maurice Connelly (insurance solicitor) in a burglary gone wrong
A white mob, some 500 strong, broke into the jail and seized Gilbert Harris after overpowering the police in the public square (actually a triangle shape in front of the Como hotel). Even though Harris had a history of break and enters, he professed his innocence. The mob later took the corpse back and laid it in the jail.[358][359][344]
Onslow Sheriff claims Blackwell wasn't lynched, rather run out of town. The United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary report claims he was shot.[344]
Mr Bruce White had hired Steelman for some work. White and Steelman ate breakfast at White's house and then walked to the work site. Steelman made an excuse and returned to White's house where he allegedly attacked Mrs. Bruce White. Her yelling alerted a Black field hand who had run away after Mrs. White started screaming. A mob then hunted him down and, even though he had a gun, were able to capture him. John Steelman was tied to a stake wood piled around him and then the pyre was ignited by Mrs. Bruce White.[344][360][361]
When Thomas Rivers was arrested, the community threatened to lynch him. He was being moved to the Benton jail when a mob overpowered the officers and took Rivers. His body was found hanging near the Shreveport-Bossier highway about 12 miles (19km) from Shreveport, Louisiana.[362][363][344]
Attack of a white woman, 19-year-old Ms. Violet Wood, daughter of Rev. John H. Wood
Ms. Violet Wood was visiting the house of her aunt, Ms. Pearl Saunders, when she interrupted a burglary allegedly undertaken by Jim Reed Long. Startled to find Wood in the house, he struck her with an iron bar. After his arrest, a mob quickly gathered in Winder, demanding that Long be handed over. Sheriff Camp was able to get Long out of the Barrows county jail in Winder but when he was taking him to Atlanta, he was stopped on the roads, overpowered and Jim Reed Long was taken by a mob and hanged.[364][365][366] Some reports say by the Ku-Klux Klan.[344] News media of the time repeated that the lynching was "orderly conducted."[366][365]
A mob had gathered in Sandersville, and so Deputy Sheriff Davis and Nixon were driving Johnson to Wrightsville when a posse of 50 men overpowered the deputies and seized Johnson. Hanged on the Cedar Creek bridge, his body was riddled with bullets.[367][368][344]
A race riot broke out on October 3, 1922, after African-American Joe Terell was arrested in connection with the murder of George Tilson who in turn was searching for a Black assailant that killed white policeman Albert Sansom. African-American Edward Pearl was killed in the race rioting.[369]
The report on the lynchings of 1922 by the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, lists John Brown as being lynched on October 3, 1922, in Montgomery,[344] but newspaper reports write that he was seized, questioned and released.[370][371]
Escaped convict Wright was taken from sheriff by a large mob, tortured into confession, and burned at the stake. Two other suspects were shot and hanged. Several African American community buildings and homes were burned in the Perry race riot.[372][373]
Deputy sheriff Granville Edward Farish was trying to collect a debt from Smith when a scuffle broke out. In the fight, Farish smashed a bottle over Smith's head whereupon Smith shot him in the stomach. Smith was arrested and a white mob soon gathered. When officials tried to move Smith to another jail, he was seized, hanged from a tree, and his body riddled with bullets. When the body was taken to the undertaker, the mob burst in to view the body.[374][344]
Accused of assaulting white 20-year-old Miss Florine Grayson
Florine Grayson could not positively identify George Gay when he was brought before her. The mob ignored this, chained him to a tree and shot him around 300 times.
Accused of detaining and beating the daughter of a professor at the University of Columbia, where Scott worked as a janitor. Lynched by a mob of over 100 men. Memorial plaque erected in 2016.[375][376]
A police officer stopped "three negroes in regards to the butchering of a turtle" on June 3, 1923. After a struggle, the officer was shot and described the assailants before dying 3 days later. A lynch mob first seized James Sands, who was beaten before one of the mob declared he was "not the one". Sands was released. The mob later seized Henry Simmons from a boarding house in West Palm Beach. His body was found the morning of June 7, 1923, at a location on Barton Road on Palm Beach Island, a short distance from The Breakers. The body was shot multiple times and hung from a tree close to where the officer was shot.
Beaten to death by a mob in a Jewish neighborhood. The girls, when questioned by police, admitted they were unsure if Bell was in fact the same man who had accosted them. The only lynching in Chicago history.[378]
The allegation was based on the testimony of two young boys who said they saw a black man running from the scene of the crime. Marshall was lynched in front of a crowd of 1,000. When the sheriff arrived, he cut Marshall down and was putting him in the car when Marshall made noise indicating he was alive. The mob shouted to lynch him again. Afterward, Marshall's body was put on display in the funeral parlor and photos of the lynching were sold door-to-door for 25 cents. In 1998, the community provided a headstone for him.[384]
Nelson was arrested on September 26, 1926 in Delray Beach on charges of assaulting a white woman in Miami. The following morning, the jail door was found torn open and the cell was empty. Later, a body identified as Nelson was found on a canal bank four miles west, with multiple gunshot wounds.
The Delray Beach Chief of Police later testified to the City Council that they had refused to release the prisoner to a stranger claiming to be an official from Miami; however, the prisoner was counted in the cell as of midnight on September 26. The Police department was declared "free of blame of neglect" by the City Council.
The culpability of the accused suspect for the crime in Miami, 55 miles away, was called into question as a major hurricane had struck eight days earlier, hampering travel.
Arrested along with brother Mark in connection with a suspected murder of a white man, he was taken by a white mob, tied to a telephone pole with barbed wire, and burned.[396]
Arrested along with brother Jim in connection with a suspected murder of a white man, he was taken by a white mob, tied to a telephone pole with barbed wire, and burned.[396]
Robbed a bank with three accomplices while dressed as Santa Claus. Ensuing shootout(s), manhunt, capture, and lynch mob. His hands and feet were bound, and he was hanged with rope thrown over a guy-wire between two telephone poles in a vacant lot behind a movie theater.
Benavides was a Mexican shepherd who was accused by the police to have attacked a white man's wife. The police then went to arrest Benavides and shot him for resisting arrest. They rushed him to the hospital; three men then called the hospital asking if the Mexican was being guarded by authorities which the nurse confirmed he wasn't. The three men later on snuck into the hospital, kidnapped Benavides and hung him from a tree near an abandoned ranch.[397]
This Pullman Porter was dragged off his train and lynched[400] A protest manifesto mentioning his lynching and two others had a cropped picture of a lynched African American.[401] This cropped photograph is taken from one of an African American lynched/hanged from a telephone pole in a railyard (Georgia(?);[331] it is unknown if the original photo is of Wilkins.
After severely injuring the sheriff, the victim was taken from the county jail, tied to a tree outside the city, and shot multiple times by a crowd of about 100 men.[402]
Captured by local citizens and identified by the woman, he was shot by a mob of about 150. The governor had been notified of the potential lynching and ordered out the National Guard, which arrived twenty minutes too late.[403]
Lynch mob of thousands broke into jail and took Shipp, Abram Smith and James Cameron. The mob hung the first two up in a tree. Cameron was released by the mob but was convicted of accessory and served time, later becoming an activist and founding the America's Black Holocaust Museum.[404]
Lynch mob of thousands broke into jail and took Smith, Thomas Shipp and James Cameron. The mob hung the first two up in a tree. Cameron was released by the mob but was convicted of accessory and served time, later becoming an activist and founding the America's Black Holocaust Museum.[404]
Courthouse stormed (during trial), burned down with Hughes locked in vault, fire hoses cut. Body then dragged behind car and hanged, and fire lit under it. Followed by riot and destruction of black businesses. Two persons received two-year sentences for violence.[406]
A mob of 7 people hung Higinio from a tree near his home to make it appear that he had committed suicide in order to collect insurance for his death.[407]
Lynchers said he "didn't deserve a trial". Castrated, forced to consume his genitals, stabbed, burned with hot irons, toes and fingers removed, hanged, body tied behind automobile. Followed by Marianna riots. Important case in helping to bring lynching to an end.
Threatening and frightening a white woman with a pen knife
Law enforcement officer; grand jury refused to indict.[416][417][418] In 2022, a two-mile stretch of Davie Boulevard in Fort Lauderdale was renamed Rubin Stacy Memorial Boulevard.[419][420]
Dunsmuir Police Chief Frank Daw was shot and killed on July 29, 1935, when he confronted an armed robbery suspect. Johnson, the alleged perpetrator, was removed from the Siskiyou County Jail and was hung from a tree near Yreka.[422]
Pair suspected in the robbery and shooting of a shopkeeper.
Tied to a tree and tortured with blowtorches to extract a confession. McDaniels shot, Townes burned alive. Photos of the lynching made the national media.[423]
Broke into a store, accused of attacking a police officer with a knife
Locked up in Leon County Jail after confessing to breaking and entering; four masked men kidnapped the two from the jail, shot them dozens of times, and put warnings to other African-Americans where the bodies laid.[425]
Beaten and mutilated before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Perpetrators acquitted by all-white jury, then openly admitted they did it. Historical markers shot and defaced 2006–2018.[431]
A federal jury in 1967 convicted the sheriff and six others of conspiracy to violate civil rights; they received minor punishment. A state jury in 2005 found the Ku Klux Klan organizer, Edgar Ray Killen, guilty of three counts of manslaughter; he died in prison. National outrage contributed to passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Fighting with deputy while in jail for stealing car to get away from two men shooting at him.
Survived. As of 2019, Rembert is a successful leatherwork artist. He has had at least two documentary films made about his story.[433][434][435][436][437]
None (one of the perpetrators hated black people).
Two white men (cousins John Arnold and John Plath) were convicted of Gardner's murder. Arnold and Plath were sentenced to death and executed via lethal injection in 1998.
None (Klan looked to kill a black man because accused killer of white policeman got mistrial).
Three Klansmen (Henry Hays, James Knowles, and Benjamin Cox) were convicted of Donald's murder. Henry Hays was sentenced to death and executed in the electric chair in 1997. James Knowles and Benjamin Cox were sentenced to life in prison. A civil suit against the United Klans of America caused their bankruptcy.
Drove through a majority-white neighborhood between his subway maintenance shifts.
Turks and two other black subway employees were attacked by 15 to 20 assailants who shouted racial epithets. Gino Bova, 18 at the time, was sentenced to 5 to 15 years in prison for manslaughter. Justice Sybil Hart Kooper said at the sentencing: "There was a lynch mob on Avenue X that night. The only thing missing was a rope and a tree."[438][439]
Chin, Vincent Jen
27
Chinese Asian
Highland Park
Wayne County
Michigan
1982
Being Asian during a time when Japan was cutting into the profits of Detroit automakers.
Two white men working for the Chrysler plant, supervisor Ronald Ebens and his stepson Michael Nitz assaulted Chin outside of a McDonald's with a baseball bat following a brawl that took place at a strip club. A witness described them using anti-Asian racial slurs as they attacked him, ultimately beating him to death.
Believed to be attending a party held by a white girl.
Mob of 10 to 30, at least seven with baseball bats chased and beat Hawkins and friends. Hawkins was ultimately shot by Joseph Fama, who was convicted of second-degree murder in 1990. Keith Mondello, was acquitted on murder charges but convicted for 12 lessor offenses. Three other men were convicted of crimes while three were charged but not convicted.[440][441]
Rosenbaum, a student from Australia, was stabbed to death by a mob as part of the Crown Heights riot.[442] Both New York Senator Daniel Moynihan and New York City Mayor David N. Dinkins called the killing a lynching. Dinkins said: "I think that the death of Yankel Rosenbaum was a lynching, as was Yusuf Hawkins. No question. Whatever term one gives to these kinds of vicious murders, that's what it is."[443]
↑ Briscoe was seized at the New Bridge over the Magothy River while being transported from Jacobsville to Annapolis, and was hanged beside the road. The place was said to be "very lonely and far from any habitation."[57]
Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate people. It can also be an extreme form of informal group social control, and it is often conducted with the display of a public spectacle for maximum intimidation. Instances of lynchings and similar mob violence can be found in every society.
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an American investigative journalist, educator, and early leader in the civil rights movement. She was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Wells dedicated her career to combating prejudice and violence, and advocating for African-American equality—especially that of women.
The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill (1918) was first introduced in the 65th United States Congress by Representative Leonidas C. Dyer, a Republican from St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States House of Representatives as H.R. 11279 in order “to protect citizens of the United States against lynching in default of protection by the States.” It was intended to establish lynching as a federal crime. The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was re-introduced in subsequent sessions of United States Congress and passed, 230 to 119, by the House of Representatives on January 26, 1922, but its passage was halted in the United States Senate by a filibuster by Southern Democrats, who formed a powerful block. Southern Democrats justified their opposition to the bill by arguing that lynchings were a response to rapes and proclaiming that lynchings were an issue that should be left for states to deal with.
Lynching was the widespread occurrence of extrajudicial killings which began in the United States' pre–Civil War South in the 1830s and ended during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. Although the victims of lynchings were members of various ethnicities, after roughly 4 million enslaved African Americans were emancipated, they became the primary targets of white Southerners. Lynchings in the U.S. reached their height from the 1890s to the 1920s, and they primarily victimized ethnic minorities. Most of the lynchings occurred in the American South, as the majority of African Americans lived there, but racially motivated lynchings also occurred in the Midwest and border states. In 1891, the largest single mass lynching in American history was perpetrated in New Orleans against Italian immigrants.
Jo Reed was an African American man who was lynched in Nashville, Tennessee, on April 30, 1875, where he was taken by a white mob from the county jail after being arrested for killing a police officer in a confrontation. He was hanged from a suspension bridge but, after the rope broke, Reed survived the attempted lynching, escaped via the river, and left Nashville to go West.
The Newberry Six lynchings took place in Newberry, Alachua County, Florida, on August 18, 1916.
Elmore County is a county located in the east-central portion of the U.S. state of Alabama. Throughout its history, there have been many lynchings in the county including on July 2, 1901, when a local mob lynched Robert White. In a strange turn of events, a local farmer, George White confessed in court to the killing and named five other local men as killers. Three men were convicted in the killing and sentenced to ten years in prison. On 9 June 1902, they were pardoned by Governor Jelks.
Will Arthur Bell was lynched by a mob in Pontotoc County, Mississippi as the local sheriff tried to move him to prevent the lynching. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 6th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
William Baker was an 18-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Monroe County, Mississippi by a white mob on March 8, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 14th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
William Byrd was an African-American man who was lynched in Brentwood, Wayne County, Georgia by a mob on May 28, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 31st of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
Charles Atkins was a 15-year-old African-American boy who was lynched in Davisboro, Washington County, Georgia by a mob on May 18, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 25th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
Jim Early was a 25-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Plantersville, Grimes County, Texas, by a mob on May 17, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 24th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
Joe Winters was a 20-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Conroe, Montgomery County, Texas by a mob on May 20, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 27th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
Hullen Owens was an African-American man who was lynched in Texarkana, Bowie County, Texas by a white mob on May 19, 1922. According to a 1926 report by the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, this was the 26th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
On December 11, 1922, George Gay was lynched in Streetman a town that straddles the border of Freestone and Navarro counties in Texas. He allegedly assaulted a young girl. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 60th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
John West was a 50-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Guernsey, Hempstead County, Arkansas by a group of men on the Hope-Texarkana train on July 28, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 41st of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
Bayner Blackwell was an African-American man who was lynched in Swansboro, Onslow County, North Carolina by a group of men on August 6, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 44th of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
John "Cockey" Glover was a 35-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Holton in Bibb County, Georgia by a mob of 300 white men on August 2, 1922. It was the 43rd of 61 lynchings during 1922 in the United States.
John Henry Harrison was a 38-year-old African-American man who was lynched in Malvern, Hot Spring County, Arkansas, by masked men on February 2, 1922. According to the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary it was the 10th of 61 lynchings in America and 1 of 5 lynchings in the State of Arkansas during 1922.
References
↑ "Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882–1968". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on June 29, 2010. Retrieved July 26, 2010. Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute.
↑ Delucia, Christine (2003). "Getting the Story Straight: Press Coverage of Italian-American Lynchings from 1856–1910". Italian Americana. 21 (2): 212–221. JSTOR29776894.
↑ "A man hanged by a mob". Delaware State journal and statesman. October 15, 1861. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2021.
↑ McCaslin, Richard B. (June 15, 2010). "Great Hamging at Gainesville". Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on August 8, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2014.
↑ Mather, RE; Boswell, RE (August 1993). "Henry Plummer". HistoryNet. First published in Wild West magazine. Archived from the original on August 27, 2019. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
↑ "#29 J. L. Compton and Joseph Wilson". Without Sanctuary. Retrieved June 9, 2022. The lynching of J. L. Compton and Joseph Wilson, vigilantes. April 30, 1870. Helena, Montana.
↑ "The Lynching at Jacksonville". The Montgomery Advertiser. Jacksonville Alabama. January 27, 1879. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2021– via Newspapers.com.
↑ "The Criminal Calendar". The Saturday Evening Press (Menasha, Wisconsin). May 1, 1879.
1 2 3 Ball, Nathaniel C. (September 30, 2015). "Memphis and the Lynching at the Curve". The Benjamin L. Hooks Institute for Social Change, University of Memphis. Archived from the original on May 18, 2018. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
↑ "#38 Unidentified male". Without Sanctuary. African American male standing on buggy, facing camera, stripped, deep lacerations and wounds, his handcuffed hands placed to cover his genitals. lynch mob. Circa 1900, location unknown.
↑ "Act of Unusual Atrocity". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. August 9, 1899. p.2. Italian authorities regard lynchings as very serious
↑ [30 Years of Lynching 1889–1918 gives surnames as "Smith"]
↑ "#5 George and Ed Silsbee". Without Sanctuary. The corpses of George and Ed Silsbee. January 20, 1900. Fort Scott, Kansas. A large group of spectators holding kerosene lamps, downed fence in foreground.
1 2 3 "Lynchings". Grenada Sentinel. January 5, 1901. Archived from the original on January 11, 2019. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
↑ "Hanging to a tree". Duluth News Tribune. January 17, 1900 – via GenalogyBank.com. It is supposed [Anderson Gause] was lynched for aiding in the escape of the Gingerly brothers, colored, who recently murdered two officers near Ripley, Tenn.
↑ Lovett, Christopher C. (Summer 2010). "A Public Burning: Race, Sex, and the Lynching of Fred Alexander". Kansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains. 33: 94–115.
↑ "#54 Unidentified male". Without Sanctuary. Four photographs of the lynching of an unidentified African American male in a coastal Georgia swamp. 1902.
↑ "#65 Unidentified male". Without Sanctuary. Stripped African American male stretched on a tripod rack, raised with pulley, upper body bandaged, lower body wrapped with a blanket tied with rope, fingers curled involuntarily. Circa 1900, St. Louis, Missouri.
↑ "Lynchings"(PDF). St. Tammany Farmer (Covington, Louisiana). February 13, 1904. p.6. Archived(PDF) from the original on January 14, 2019. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
↑ "#50 Augustus Goodman (?)". Without Sanctuary. The lynching of Augustus Goodman (?), his body hanging from oak tree that served as a community bulletin board, onlookers. November 4, 1905, Bainbridge, Georgia.
↑ "#71 Bunk Richardson". Without Sanctuary. The lynching of Bunk Richardson, his body suspended over the Coosa River, stripped to long johns."#72 Bunk Richardson". Without Sanctuary. The corpse of Bunk Richardson, propped up for photographer on plank walk of bridge spanning the Coosa River, severely beaten, stripped to long johns. Onlookers hold handkerchiefs to cover nose and mouths.
1 2 3 "#58 Unidentified male". Without Sanctuary. Unidentified corpse of badly beaten white male in shredded clothes hanging from rope stretched over unpaved street, onlookers in background. Circa 1900, Virginia City, Montana.
↑ "#2 Unidentified male". Without Sanctuary. Unidentified corpse of African American male. Gallows, courthouse-jail, and windmill in background. Nine onlookers, two young boys. 1900-1915. Location unknown. and The Waxahachie daily light. [volume], February 29, 1908, Image 1; in regard to a 2nd reported lynching March 28, 1908– newspaper account reported that in Magnolia, Texas a young white woman was knocked down, her clothing torn and she was almost criminally assaulted by an unnamed negro; the Sheriff coming to the scene found two negroes shot (one killed) see The new South-news., March 28, 1908, Image 2
1 2 Villanueva, Nicholas (August 2018). The lynching of Mexicans in the Texas borderlands. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN9780826360304. OCLC1032029983.
↑ "#57 Ernest Harrison, Sam Reed, and Frank Howard". Without Sanctuary. Retrieved June 9, 2022. The corpses of Ernest Harrison, Sam Reed, and Frank Howard hanging from a rafter in a sawmill, jagged circular blade in lower right hand corner. September 11, 1911, Wickliffe, Kentucky.
↑ "Negro Fiend is Lynched at Princeton". The Wheeling intelligencier. September 5, 1912. p.1. Retrieved May 24, 2022– via Chronicling of America (Library of Congress).
↑ "Joe Green". Legacy of Lynching. February 25, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2022.
↑ Sam Spicer Jr. vs. the State of Alabama, Alabama Supreme Court, 4th Div. 598 (July 1916)
↑ "#18 John Richards". Without Sanctuary. John Richards hanging on a tree, jubilant lynchers, a freshly hewn pine coffin. January 12, 1916, Goldsboro, North Carolina.
↑ Utley, Robert M. (2007). Lone Star Lawmen: The Second Century of the Texas Rangers ([Online-Ausg.].ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-515444-3.
↑ "Woman's Impatience Revealed as Cause of Porter's Death". New York Negro World. May 29, 1920. The woman sent a telegram to the next station stating that Scott had insulted her. When the train stopped, Scott was removed by a deputy sheriff. From there the story followed the usual lynching pattern. A mob "over-powered" the sheriff and killed the Negro. The coroner's jury returned the usual verdict, "Death at the hands of parties unknown."
↑ "#49 Lige Daniels". Without Sanctuary. The lynching of Lige Daniels. Onlookers, including young boys. August 3, 1920, Center, Texas.
↑ "#24 Elias Clayton". Without Sanctuary. The lynching of nineteen-year-old Elias Clayton, nineteen-year-old Elmer Jackson, and twenty-year-old Isaac McGhie. June 15, 1920, Duluth, Minnesota.
↑ Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida. "The Ocoee Riot". Archived from the original on February 26, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
↑ "#52 James Clark". Without Sanctuary. The lynching of James Clark, handcuffed. July 11, 1926, Eau Gallie, Florida.
↑ Robeson, Elizabeth (2017), "Lowman lynchings", South Carolina Encyclopedia, Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, Institute for Southern Studies, retrieved May 27, 2022
↑ "Grand Lake Mystery May Be Cleared Up". The Steamboat Pilot. Vol.42, no.5. Steamboat Springs, CO: Chas. A. Leckenby. August 18, 1926. p.1. Archived from the original on July 4, 2021. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
↑ "#75 Two unidentified males". Without Sanctuary. Lynching of two unidentified African American males, white man squatting, hides face as he stills corpses.
↑ [Howard, W. T. (1988). Vigilante Justice and National Reaction: The 1937 Tallahassee Double Lynching. The Florida Historical Quarterly, 67(1), 32–51. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30147922 ]
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