1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia

Last updated

Headline and lead paragraph in The Atlanta Georgian of September 10, 1912, reporting the lynching of Rob Edwards Forsyth County headline of 10 September 1912.png
Headline and lead paragraph in The Atlanta Georgian of September 10, 1912, reporting the lynching of Rob Edwards
Location of Forsyth County within the U.S. state of Georgia Map of Georgia highlighting Forsyth County.svg
Location of Forsyth County within the U.S. state of Georgia

In Forsyth County, Georgia, in September 1912, two separate alleged attacks on white women in the Cumming area resulted in black men being accused as suspects. First, a white woman reportedly awoke to find a black man in her bedroom; then days later, a white teenage girl was beaten and raped, later dying of her injuries.

Contents

Following the first alleged assault, a black preacher who made disparaging remarks about the victim was harshly beaten. Local law enforcement locked the preacher inside the courthouse overnight to protect him from the mob waiting outside. Other black men, arrested in connection with the alleged assault, were moved to Atlanta for their safety. A grand jury dropped the case months later.

Following the second alleged assault, a 16-year-old black boy was linked to the attack by a pocket mirror sold to him at a local store. He confessed, under duress, and implicated accomplices. Rob Edwards was one of the men arrested and held in the small jail in Cumming. He was taken from the jail by a white mob and shot and beaten to death, and his body was hanged from a telephone pole. The 16-year-old and an alleged accomplice were later convicted by an all-white jury and sentenced to death by hanging, which was carried out weeks later in what became a public execution.

In the following months, a group of men called "Night Riders" [lower-alpha 1] terrorized black citizens, warning them to leave in 24 hours or be killed. Those who resisted were subjected to further harassment, including shots fired into their homes, or livestock killed. An estimated 98% of the black residents of Forsyth County left.

Background

External audio
Nuvola apps arts.svg The 'Racial Cleansing' That Drove 1,100 Black Residents Out Of Forsyth County, Ga., 38:57, Fresh Air with Terry Gross, NPR, September 15, 2016. [1]

After the American Civil War, black enslaved persons in the South were emancipated and granted citizenship and the franchise through constitutional amendments. But by the turn of the 20th century, all Southern states disfranchised blacks by passing constitutions and other laws to impede voter registration and voting. Georgia Democrats passed such a law in 1908, resulting in the disfranchisement of blacks in the state. In addition, the white-dominated Southern legislatures passed laws imposing racial segregation in public facilities, and Jim Crow customs ruled. Most rural blacks worked as sharecroppers on white-owned land, and were seldom able to get free from poverty.

The 1906 Atlanta race riot was waged by whites against blacks, and reflected tensions in a city that was rapidly changing. Dr. Ansel Strickland, a doctor in Cumming, Georgia, wrote a firsthand account saying that "hundreds of Black were killed" by whites in the Atlanta riot. The rate of lynchings of blacks by whites in Georgia and the South had been high since the late 19th century, and accounts of lynchings were regularly published in the local papers, often maintaining that the blacks were responsible, guilty either of a crime or poor attitude. Lynchings were a means by whites to enforce white supremacy in social affairs, and ensure that blacks stayed in line.

The presence of mixed race individuals suggests that the official ban against interracial relationships was not absolute, including historical accounts of light-skinned slaves being fathered by white owners. [2] : 78–79  At the time of the 1910 census, Georgia's Forsyth County was recorded as having more than 10,000 whites, 858 blacks and 440 mulattoes (mixed race).[ citation needed ]

Ellen Grice incident

Newspaper report in The Columbus Ledger of September 8, 1912 Ellen Grice story (1912 Forsyth County) Edit Share Print Download.jpg
Newspaper report in The Columbus Ledger of September 8, 1912

On the night of September 5, 1912, a white woman named Ellen Grice [lower-alpha 2] alleged that a black man entered her bedroom. [lower-alpha 3] Awakened by him, she screamed, which caused him to flee. [3] Within days, Forsyth County Sheriff William Reid detained Toney Howell as a suspect, along with alleged accomplices Johnny Bates, Fate Chester, Isaiah Pirkle, and Joe Rogers. [2] : 4  The five black men were placed in the small Forsyth County jail located near the Cumming town square. [2] : 5 

Assault on Grant Smith

After the news came out about the attack on Grice, Grant Smith, a black preacher at a local Cumming church, was heard to suggest that the victim was a "sorry white woman". [4] Outraged whites horse-whipped the preacher until law officers rescued him and took him inside the courthouse. [4] [5] Guards were stationed to protect Smith from further violence; they prevented the courthouse from being stormed. [5] Smith was later transferred out of town for his safety. [5] No one was ever arrested or tried for the assault on Smith. [1]

Whites patrol streets

Sheriff Bill Reid and Deputy Sheriff Mitchell Gay Lummus, c. 1912 Sheriff Bill Reid and Mitchell Gay Lummus.jpg
Sheriff Bill Reid and Deputy Sheriff Mitchell Gay Lummus, c. 1912

Based on rumors that blacks at a nearby church barbecue threatened to dynamite the town, armed white men patrolled Cumming to prevent such action. [6] Fearing a race riot, Governor Joseph Mackey Brown declared martial law [7] and activated 23 members of the National Guard from Gainesville, who successfully kept the peace along with other Guard members from Marietta. [8]

Later that day, Sheriff Reid sent Howell, his four alleged accomplices, and Smith to the Cobb County jail in nearby Marietta for their safety. Smith, who was not under arrest, was released there. [9] Fearing that a mob from Cumming was en route, Governor Brown arranged for the five prisoners to be moved again for their protection, this time to the Fulton County jail in Atlanta. [9] No mob formed in Marietta. [6]

Toney Howell charges

Police said that Toney Howell had confessed to the assault on Ellen Grice. [7] Charged with assault with intent to rape, [3] a grand jury quietly dropped the case in February 1913 and he was never tried. [10] [3]

Mae Crow assault

On September 8, 1912, Mae Crow, [lower-alpha 4] a white girl aged 18, went missing near Cumming. [11] She was walking from home to her aunt's house nearby on Browns Bridge Road along the Forsyth-Hall county line. The next day, searchers found the missing girl at noon, in secluded woods about one mile (1.6 km) from her house. [11] She was lying face down in a pool of blood and her throat had been slashed; she was still alive and breathing shallowly. [13] Crow later died of her injuries. [lower-alpha 5]

Arrest of Ernest Knox

Photo taken October 2, 1912. Although not identified by the newspaper, they are believed to be: (left to right) Trussie "Jane" Daniel, Oscar Daniel, Tony Howell (accused of Mae Crow assault), Ed Collins (witness), Isaiah Pirkle (witness for Howell), and Ernest Knox Defendants in 1912 Forsyth County Trials.jpg
Photo taken October 2, 1912. Although not identified by the newspaper, they are believed to be: (left to right) Trussie "Jane" Daniel, Oscar Daniel, Tony Howell (accused of Mae Crow assault), Ed Collins (witness), Isaiah Pirkle (witness for Howell), and Ernest Knox

At the scene where the girl was found, searchers found a small pocket mirror that was said to belong to Ernest Knox, [15] [lower-alpha 6] a 16-year-old black boy. [14] Police arrested him at home, taking him to the Hall County jail in Gainesville to avoid the recent turmoil of Cumming. [14] On the way, Knox confessed to having attacked Crow, after being subjected to a "form of torture known as mock lynching." [2] : 38–39 

Knox was said to have struck Crow from behind and dragged her down a gully in the woods. [15] He allegedly assaulted the girl with a rock and raped her. [16] Around midnight that day, Knox returned to the scene with three acquaintances: [16] Oscar Daniel, 17; Oscar's sister Trussie "Jane" Daniel, 22; and Jane's live-in boyfriend Rob Edwards, 24. The men reportedly "satisfied their lustful passions" on the girl. [16]

When word spread of the attack on Crow, a white lynch mob began to form that afternoon at the Gainesville jail. [2] : 43  That night, police officers took Knox by car to Atlanta to prevent a lynching. [15]

Rob Edwards lynched

Rob Edwards was arrested the next day as a suspect in Crow's attack and was taken to the county jail in Cumming. [17] Sheriff Reid then left, leaving his deputy to protect the jail and its prisoner. [17] Later that day, a lynch mob attacked the county jail; some men gained entry, dragged Edwards from his cell, and hanged him from a telephone pole in the town square; [17] he may have been shot to death before being hanged. [18] The Atlanta Georgian reported that "the corpse was mangled into something hardly resembling a human form." [17]

Trial

Trussie Daniel and her brother Oscar Daniel were also arrested as suspects, and their neighbor Ed Collins was held as a witness. [lower-alpha 7] For the trial, held in early October in Cumming, the governor again declared martial law. [16] At the trial, Trussie Daniel testified as a witness and recounted the midnight attack on the victim by the men. [16] Ernest Knox and Oscar Daniel were quickly convicted of rape and murder, [16] by an all-white jury of 11 farmers and one night watchman. [20]

The following day, October 4, both teenagers were sentenced to death by hanging, scheduled for October 25. State law prohibited public hangings. The scheduled execution was to be viewed only by the victim's family, a minister, and law officers. Gallows were built off the square in Cumming. A fence erected around the gallows was burned down the night before the execution. A crowd estimated at between 5,000 and 8,000 gathered to watch what became a public hanging of the two youths. The total county population was around 12,000 at the time. [21]

Aftermath: racial expulsion

Headline in The Atlanta Georgian of February 19, 1913 Forsyth County headline of 19 February 1913.jpg
Headline in The Atlanta Georgian of February 19, 1913

After the trial and executions, bands of white men known as Night Riders, [lower-alpha 1] from Cherokee County and other nearby counties, threatened and intimidated black inhabitants. These families either fled or were killed and their properties were stolen from them. Those that left fled to Hall County and Gwinnett County. In 1910, more than 1,000 black people lived in the county, which had more than 10,000 white residents. Within the next four months following the events of September 1912, an estimated 98% of the black residents living in the county left due to Night Rider threats, or were murdered.[ citation needed ]

Some property owners were able to sell, likely at a loss. The renters and sharecroppers left to seek safer places. Those who had to abandon property, and failed to continue paying property tax, eventually lost their lands, and whites took it over. [22] Many black properties ended up in white hands without a sale and without a legal transfer of title. [22] Much of this land was in the village of Oscarville, Georgia. Eventually, the village was submerged under the waters of Lake Lanier.

Night Riders next moved on to Dawson County and Hall County where they attempted to do the same. Reportedly, a few white residents tried to stop the Night Riders, but were unsuccessful. They were finally stopped when the Hall County sheriff arrested 11 of the Night Riders.[ citation needed ]

This anti-black campaign was widespread across Appalachian Georgia, with Forsyth being the third county to expel its black population after Towns and Union, [23] whilst whites soon afterwards expelled blacks from the surrounding counties of Fannin, Gilmer and Dawson. [21]

Representation in other media

The racial expulsion, or ethnic cleansing, of Forsyth County was among the events explored in Banished: American Ethnic Cleansings, aired on PBS in 2015 in its Independent Lens series. [24]

The 2016 non-fiction book by author Patrick Phillips, Blood at the Root: A Racial Cleansing In America , examines the 1912 events in Forsyth County along with later events including the 1987 Forsyth County protests. [2] Phillips said in an interview with Terry Gross that he first heard of the racial cleansing when he moved to the county with his parents at age seven. [1]

In 2020, soil from the site where Rob Edwards was lynched was donated to The Legacy Museum in Montgomery, Alabama, for display with soil from other lynching sites across the United States. [25]

In January 2021, a historical marker documenting the lynching of Rob Edwards was unveiled in downtown Cumming. [12]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 The Ku Klux Klan had disbanded in the early 1870s and did not re-form until 1915.
  2. ↑ The woman's name did not appear in contemporary newspaper reports; a 1987 article in The Atlanta Journal-Constitution named her as Ellen Grice, [3] but earlier examples are lacking.
  3. ↑ Accounts differ as to if this occurred at the home of the woman's parents, or at the home of the woman and her husband. [2] : 1 
  4. ↑ Contemporary newspaper reports gave her name as May Crow; [11] a 1987 recap of events gave her name as Slutie Mae Crow; [3] other sources state Sleety Mae Crow. [12]
  5. ↑ Contemporary newspaper reports said she died on September 9; [14] [15] other sources state September 23. [2] : 67 
  6. ↑ Contemporary newspaper reports initially gave his name as Ernest Cox. [14]
  7. ↑ Collins testified at trial that he loaned Knox and Edwards a lantern on the night in question. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forsyth County, Georgia</span> County in Georgia, United States

Forsyth County is a county in the Northeast portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. Suburban and exurban in character, Forsyth County lies within the Atlanta metropolitan area. The county's only incorporated city and county seat is Cumming. At the 2020 census, the population was 251,283. Forsyth was the fastest-growing county in Georgia and the 15th fastest-growing county in the United States between 2010 and 2019. Forsyth County's rapid population growth can be attributed to its proximity to high-income employment opportunities in nearby Alpharetta and northern Fulton County, its equidistant location between the big-city amenities of bustling Atlanta and the recreation offerings of the scenic Blue Ridge Mountains, its plentiful supply of large, relatively affordable new-construction homes, and its highly ranked public school system. The influx of high-income professionals and their families has increased the county's median annual household income dramatically in recent years; at $104,687, Forsyth County was the wealthiest in Georgia and the 19th-wealthiest in the United States as of 2018 estimates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cumming, Georgia</span> City in Georgia, United States

Cumming is a city in and the county seat of Forsyth County, Georgia, United States, and the sole incorporated area in the county. It is a suburban city, and part of the Atlanta metropolitan area. In the 2020 census, the population is 7,318, up from 5,430 in 2010. Surrounding unincorporated areas with a Cumming mailing address have a population of approximately 100,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Danielsville, Georgia</span> City in Georgia, United States

Danielsville is a city in Madison County, Georgia, United States. The population was 654 at the 2020 census, up from 560 in 2010. The city is the county seat of Madison County.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching of Sam Hose</span> African American who was lynched in the U.S.

Sam Hose was an African American man who was tortured and murdered by a white lynch mob in Coweta County, Georgia, after being accused of rape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching in the United States</span> Extrajudicial killings in the United States by mobs or vigilante groups

Lynching was the widespread occurrence of extrajudicial killings which began in the United States' pre–Civil War South in the 1830s, slowed during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, and continued until 1981. Although the victims of lynchings were members of various ethnicities, after roughly 4 million enslaved African Americans were emancipated, they became the primary targets of white Southerners. Lynchings in the U.S. reached their height from the 1890s to the 1920s, and they primarily victimized ethnic minorities. Most of the lynchings occurred in the American South, as the majority of African Americans lived there, but racially motivated lynchings also occurred in the Midwest and border states. In 1891, the largest single mass lynching in American history was perpetrated in New Orleans against Italian immigrants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">People's Grocery lynchings</span> 1892 lynchings in Memphis, Tennessee

The People's Grocery lynchings of 1892 occurred on March 9, 1892, in Memphis, Tennessee, when black grocery owner Thomas Moss and two of his workers, Will Stewart and Calvin McDowell, were lynched by a white mob while in police custody. The lynchings occurred in the aftermath of a fight between whites and blacks and two subsequent shooting altercations in which two white police officers were wounded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1906 Atlanta race massacre</span> Massacre of African Americans in Georgia

The 1906 Atlanta Race Massacre, also known as the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot, was an episode of mass racial violence against African Americans in the United States in September 1906. Violent attacks by armed mobs of White Americans against African Americans in Atlanta, Georgia, began after newspapers, on the evening of September 22, 1906, published several unsubstantiated and luridly detailed reports of the alleged rapes of 4 local women by black men. The violence lasted through September 24, 1906. The events were reported by newspapers around the world, including the French Le Petit Journal which described the "lynchings in the USA" and the "massacre of Negroes in Atlanta," the Scottish Aberdeen Press & Journal under the headline "Race Riots in Georgia," and the London Evening Standard under the headlines "Anti-Negro Riots" and "Outrages in Georgia." The final death toll of the conflict is unknown and disputed, but officially at least 25 African Americans and two whites died. Unofficial reports ranged from 10–100 black Americans killed during the massacre. According to the Atlanta History Center, some black Americans were hanged from lampposts; others were shot, beaten or stabbed to death. They were pulled from street cars and attacked on the street; white mobs invaded black neighborhoods, destroying homes and businesses.

On May 16, 1918, a plantation owner was murdered, prompting a manhunt which resulted in a series of lynchings in May 1918 in southern Georgia, United States. White people killed at least 13 black people during the next two weeks. Among those killed were Hazel "Hayes" Turner and his wife, Mary Turner. Hayes was killed on May 18, and the next day, his pregnant wife Mary was strung up by her feet, doused with gasoline and oil then set on fire. Mary's unborn child was cut from her abdomen and stomped to death. Her body was then repeatedly shot. No one was ever convicted of her lynching.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching of Jim McMillan</span>

Jim McMillan was lynched in Bibb County, Alabama on June 18, 1919.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longview race riot</span> Race riot and lynching in Texas, US

The Longview race riot was a series of violent incidents in Longview, Texas, between July 10 and July 12, 1919, when whites attacked black areas of town, killed one black man, and burned down several properties, including the houses of a black teacher and a doctor. It was one of the many race riots in 1919 in the United States during what became known as Red Summer, a period after World War I known for numerous riots occurring mostly in urban areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perry massacre</span> Racially motivated conflict in Florida, USA

The Perry massacre was a racially motivated conflict in Perry, Florida, in December 1922. Whites killed four black men, including Charles Wright, who was lynched by being burned at the stake, and they also destroyed several buildings in the black community of Perry after the murder of Ruby Hendry, a white female schoolteacher.

The lynching of the Walker family took place near Hickman, Fulton County, Kentucky, on October 3, 1908, at the hands of about fifty masked Night Riders. David Walker was a landowner, with a 21.5-acre (8.7 ha) farm. The entire family of seven African Americans including parents, infant in arms, and four children were killed, with the event reported by national newspapers. Governor Augustus E. Willson of Kentucky strongly condemned the murders and promised a reward for information leading to prosecution. No one was ever prosecuted.

<i>Blood at the Root</i> 2016 book by Patrick Phillips

Blood at the Root: A Racial Cleansing in America is a 2016 non-fiction book written by Patrick Phillips investigating the 1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia, the ensuing racial cleansing of the county, and later developments including the 1987 Forsyth County protests.

Austin Callaway, also known as Austin Brown, was a young African-American man who was taken from jail by a group of six white men and lynched on September 8, 1940, in LaGrange, Georgia. The day before, Callaway had been arrested as a suspect in an assault of a white woman. The gang carried out extrajudicial punishment and prevented the youth from ever receiving a trial. They shot him numerous times, fatally wounding him and leaving him for dead. Found by a motorist, Callaway was taken to a hospital, where he died of his wounds.

Ephraim Grizzard and Henry Grizzard were African-American brothers who were lynched in Middle Tennessee in April 1892 as suspects in the assaults on two white sisters. Henry Grizzard was hanged by a white mob on April 24 near the house of the young women in Goodlettsville, Tennessee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berry Washington</span> African American who was lynched in the U.S.

Berry Washington was a 72-year-old black man who was lynched in Milan, Georgia, in 1919. He was in jail after killing a white man who was attacking two young girls. He was taken from jail and lynched by a mob.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lynching of Paul Reed and Will Cato</span> Murders and lynchings in Statesboro, Georgia in 1904

The lynching of Paul Reed and Will Cato occurred in Statesboro, Georgia on August 16, 1904. Five members of a white farm family, the Hodges, had been murdered and their house burned to hide the crime. Paul Reed and Will Cato, who were African-American, were tried and convicted for the murders. Despite militia having been brought in from Savannah to protect them, the two men were taken by a mob from the courthouse immediately after their trials, chained to a tree stump, and burned. In the immediate aftermath, four more African-Americans were shot, three of them dying, and others were flogged.

The 1987Forsyth County protests were a series of civil rights demonstrations held in Forsyth County, Georgia, in the United States. The protests consisted of two marches, held one week apart from each other on January 17 and January 24, 1987. The marches and accompanying counterdemonstrations by white supremacists drew national attention to the county. The second march was attended by many prominent civil rights activists and politicians, including both of Georgia's U.S. senators, and attracted about 20,000 marchers, making it one of the largest civil rights demonstrations in United States history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oscarville, Georgia</span> Ghost town in the U.S. state of Georgia

Oscarville is a ghost town in Forsyth County, Georgia. Oscarville, a majority-Black town, is most famous for being a central location in a series of violent crimes and racially motivated riots that happened in 1912, driving away most of the Black residents in Forsyth County. In 1950, the remnants of the town were flooded during the construction of Lake Lanier. The site of Oscarville was located in northeastern Forsyth County, close to the border with Hall County.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "The 'Racial Cleansing' That Drove 1,100 Black Residents Out Of Forsyth County, Ga". Fresh Air . NPR. September 15, 2016. Retrieved September 20, 2016.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Phillips, Patrick (September 2016). Blood at the Root: A Racial Cleansing in America. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN   9780393293029 . Retrieved December 27, 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Christensen, Mike (June 28, 1987). "Forsyth (cont'd)". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . p. 13. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  4. 1 2 "Appeal for Troops as Lynchers Gather". The Atlanta Georgian . September 7, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  5. 1 2 3 "Militia Prevents Clash of Racist Cummings". Ledger-Enquirer . Columbus, Georgia. September 8, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  6. 1 2 "The Assault, Rape and Murder of Mae Crow". rootsweb.ancestry.com. County Coordinator of Forsyth County. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
  7. 1 2 Craig, Harvey (September 9, 1912). "State Troopers Rescue Negroes at Cumming, GA". The Atlanta Constitution . pp.  1, 2 . Retrieved April 6, 2022– via Newspapers.com.
  8. ↑ "Two Companies of Militia Prevent a Serious Race Riot". The Macon Daily Telegraph . Macon, Georgia. September 8, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  9. 1 2 "Bloodhounds on Trial of Cumming Firebug; Race War Threatens". The Atlanta Georgian . September 11, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  10. ↑ Christensen, Mike (June 28, 1987). "Tale of white Forsyth not fully factual". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  11. 1 2 3 "Young Lady was in Woods, but Found". The Valdosta Daily Times . September 9, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  12. 1 2 "Historical marker documenting 1912 lynching unveiled in downtown Cumming". Forsyth County News. January 25, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2023.
  13. ↑ "Girl, 18, Throat Cut, Found Unconscious in Woods Near Cumming". The Atlanta Georgian . September 9, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  14. 1 2 3 4 "Second Outrage Shocks Cumming". The Macon Daily Telegraph . Macon, Georgia. September 10, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  15. 1 2 3 4 "Negro is Rushed in Fast Machine to Fulton Tower". The Atlanta Constitution . September 10, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Troops on Guard as Two Rapists are Convicted". The Atlanta Constitution . October 4, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  17. 1 2 3 4 "Mob Batters Down Jail Door at Cumming and Hangs Girl's Assailant". The Atlanta Georgian . September 10, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  18. ↑ "Terror in Cumming; Race Riot Feared". The Atlanta Georgian . September 11, 1912. p. 1. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  19. ↑ "Troops Guard Negroes' Trial at Cumming". The Atlanta Georgian . October 3, 1912. p. 5. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  20. ↑ "List of Chosen Jurors". The Atlanta Georgian . October 3, 1912. p. 5. Retrieved March 5, 2023– via newspapers.com.
  21. 1 2 Bramblett, Annette (October 1, 2002). Forsyth County: History Stories, The Making of America Series. Mount Pleasant, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. pp. 143–147. ISBN   978-0-7385-2386-6.
  22. 1 2 Jaspin, Elliot (March 5, 2007). Buried in the Bitter Waters: The Hidden History of Racial Cleansing in America . New York, New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-03636-3.
  23. ↑ Loewen, James W.; Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism, p. 179 ISBN   9781565848870
  24. ↑ Banished: American Ethnic Cleansings (2015), Independent Lens, PBS
  25. ↑ Cep, Casey (July 11, 2020). "'Do You Think You're Not Involved?' The Racial Reckoning of 'Blood at the Root'". The New Yorker . Retrieved March 14, 2023.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.