List of ethnic cleansing campaigns

This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of definitions of the term ethnic cleansing. Definitions cluster around the forced removal of all or a large number of an ethnic population from an area, or rendering an area ethnically homogenous. See the main article for further information. When claims of ethnic cleansing are made by non-experts (e.g. journalists or politicians) they are noted.

There is significant scholarly disagreement around the definition of ethnic cleansing and which events fall under this classification. ^[1]

Ancient, Medieval and Early Modern periods

Antiquity

Judaean people being deported after the Siege of Lachish; wall relief from the South-West Palace at Nineveh

• The resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 9th and 7th centuries BC is considered by some scholars to be one of the first cases of ethnic cleansing. ^[2]
  • c. 597 BCE: When the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the Kingdom of Judah in modern-day Israel, tens of thousands of Jews were expelled from Israel, representing the first waves of the Jewish diaspora. This is referred to as the Babylonian Captivity. ^[3]
• 416 BC: During the Peloponnesian War the Athenians had the neutral island polis of Melos destroyed, with the men of fighting age being killed, and the women and children sold as slaves. Athenian colonists were moved in afterwards. This is considered an important example of an ancient genocide. ^{[4] [5] [6]}
• 353 BC: After the polis of Sestos refused to submit to Athens, the Strategos Chares of Athens killed the entire adult male population and sold the women and children into slavery, replacing them with Athenian colonists. ^[7]
• c. 149-146 BC: The Sack of Carthage resulted in the city being destroyed, its population expelled or massacred, and any rebuilding forbidden. It is called a genocide by some scholars. ^[8]
• c. 88 BC: The massacres of Romans living in Anatolia ordered by Mithridates VI Eupator. These were known as the Asiatic Vespers and are considered to be a genocide by some scholars. ^{[9] [10] [11]}
• 58-50 BC: The Gallic Wars resulted in large amounts of the Gallic population being massacred or enslaved by the Roman Army. It has been called a genocide by some scholars. ^{[12] [13]}
  • c. 53-51 BC: Caesar claimed that he burnt all Eburones village he could find, his men ate all their grain, and drove away their animals. Caesar said he aimed to make the Eburones starve to death, and believed he succeeded. Daniel Chirot and Jennifer Edwards described this as a genocide. ^[14] However, Johannes Heinrichs argues that such a genocide was impossible due to many of the areas the Eburoneans sought refuge in were impenetrable to the Roman Army, and cites Caesar's second campaign against them in 51 BC as proof that the Eburoneans weren't exterminated. ^[15] Nico Roymans argues that the reason why the Eburoneans disappeared from history was due to "a policy of damnatio memoriae on the part of the Roman authorities, in combination with the confiscation of Eburonean territory". ^[16]
• 115–117 AD: The Roman suppression of the Diaspora Revolt in Cyrenaica, Egypt and Cyprus led to the near-total expulsion and annihilation of Jews from these regions. ^[17]
• 132–136 AD: During the Third Jewish-Roman War, Roman forces under the command of Hadrian killed over 580,000 Jews and razed over 985 Judean villages. The campaign has been described as an act of ethnic cleansing and genocide. The Jews are again expelled from Israel. Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem on pain of death. ^{[18] [19]}
• c. 350 AD: Ancient Chinese texts record that General Ran Min ordered the ethnic cleansing and extermination of the non-Han ethnic groups known as the Five Barbarians, especially the Jie people, during the Wei–Jie war in the fourth century AD. ^[20]

Medieval period

• c. 800 AD: A group of Ancestral Puebloans were massacred in an early genocide in the American Southwest. ^{[21] [22]}
• 11th to 16th century AD: In the Inca Empire, the mitma  was a policy of forced resettlement employed by the empire. It involved the forceful migration of groups of extended families or ethnic groups from their home territory to lands recently conquered by the Incas. The objective was to transfer both loyalty to the state and a cultural baggage of Inca culture such as language, technology, economic and other resources into areas that were in transition.
• 1069 - 1070 AD: The Harrying of the North resulted in as much as 75% of the Anglo-Saxon population of Northern England being killed in massacres or the ensuing famine, or expelled, leading several academics to call it a genocide. ^{[23] [24]}
• 1071 - 1453 AD: The Turkish invasion and settlement of Anatolia (now Turkey), caused the displacement and replacement of the previous Greek and Armenian inhabited populations of Anatolia.

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

• 1200s - 1368 AD: The Mongol Empire laid waste to large parts of Eurasia, leading their actions to be called genocidal. ^{[25] [26] [27]} The British historian John Joseph Saunders called the Mongol Empire "the most notorious practitioners of genocide". ^[28]
  • 1202 AD: After defeating the Tatar confederation, Genghis Khan had every Tatar male taller than a linchpin executed. ^[29]
• c. 1290 AD: Edward I of England expelled all Jews living in England in 1290 (see Edict of Expulsion). ^[30]
• c. 1250–1500 AD: From the 13th to the 16th centuries many European countries expelled the Jews from their territory on at least 15 occasions. Spain was preceded by England, France and some German states, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions.

Early modern period

• c. 1492–1614 AD: As a result of religious persecution, up to a quarter million Jews in Spain converted to Catholicism, those who refused (between 40,000 and 70,000) were expelled in 1492 following the Alhambra Decree. Those who did convert were subject to legal discrimination under the Limpieza de sangre system, which privileged Old Christians over New Christians. Many of the converts continued practising Judaism in secret, leading to the Inquisition. Shortly after the practice of Islam was outlawed and all of Spain's Muslims became nominally Christian. ^[31] The descendants of these converted Muslims were called Moriscos. After the 1571 suppression of the Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras region, almost 80,000 Moriscos were relocated to other parts of Spain and some 270 villages and hamlets were repopulated with settlers brought from other regions. This was followed by a general Expulsion of the Moriscos between 1609–1614 which was nominally applied to the entire Spanish realm, but was carried out most thoroughly in the eastern region of Valencia. Although its overall success in terms of implementation is subject to academic debate and did not involve widespread violence, it is considered one of the first episodes of state-sponsored ethnic cleansing in the modern western world. ^[32]
• 1492 - 1800s: Indigenous Americans of North America and South America were dispossessed and killed (or died by introduced diseases) by British, Spanish and Portuguese colonialists and become a minority in their homelands. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by American settlers as a historical example of genocide. ^[33] Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term. ^[34]
• 1556–1620: Plantations of Ireland. Land in Laois, Offaly, Munster and parts of Ulster was seized by the English crown and colonised with English settlers. ^[35] Ireland has been described as a "testing ground" for British colonialism, with the confiscation of land and expulsion of native Irish from their homelands being a rehearsal for the expulsion of the Native Americans by British settlers. ^{[36] [37]}

After Cromwell's conquest of Ireland, huge areas of land were confiscated and the Irish Catholics were banished to the lands of Connacht.

• c. 1652 AD: After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and Act of Settlement in 1652, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and Alan Axelrod as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country, but others such as the historian Tim Pat Coogan have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide. ^[38]
• 1755–1757 AD: The Dzungar genocide (Chinese :準噶爾滅族; lit.'extermination of the Dzungar tribe') was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty. ^[39] The genocide was perpetrated by Manchu generals of the Qing army, supported by Turkic oasis dwellers (now known as Uyghurs) who rebelled against Dzungar rule. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population, or around 500,000 to 800,000 people, were killed by a combination of warfare and disease during or after the Qing conquest.
• 1755–1764 AD: During the French and Indian War, the Nova Scotia colonial government, aided by New England troops, instituted a systematic removal of the French Catholic Acadian population of Nova Scotia – eventually removing thousands of settlers from the region and relocating them to areas in the Thirteen Colonies, Britain and France. Many eventually moved and settled in Louisiana and became known as Cajuns. Many scholars have described the subsequent death of over 50% of the deported Acadian population as an ethnic cleansing. ^[40]
• 1788 - 1900s : Indigenous Australians are dispossessed and killed (or die of introduced diseases) by British colonialists and become a minority in their homelands.

19th century

The Batak massacre, an example of ethnic cleansing by Ottoman irregular troops in Bulgaria in 1876.

Portrait of Circassian refugees evicted from their towns and villages during the Circassian genocide. According to some authors, the Russian Empire massacred and forcibly deported 95-97% of all Circassians through military campaigns designated by the Russian army as “ochishchenie” (cleansing).

• Between 1821 and 1922, a large number of Muslims were expelled from Southeast Europe as Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire, with the Ottoman army then retaliating against the native Christian people. Mann describes these events as "murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe." One example was the Greek liberation of Tripoli, Peloponnese in 1821 and slaughter of its Muslim inhabitants, with the Turks then slaughtering all Greeks of Chios Island in 1822. These countries sought to expand their territory against the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Balkan Wars of the early 20th century, which in turn led to the Turks ethnic cleaning of Christians in Anatolia and the Armenian genocide. ^[43]
• The Russian empire perpetrated several ethnic cleansing campaigns in the Caucasus region during the 19th century. ^[44] These included the Circassian genocide, which was the deadliest ethnic cleansing campaign of the 19th century. ^[45] Between 1.5 to 2 million Circassians were mass murdered, ^[46] and approximately 1.5 million Circassian natives were forcibly driven out of their homeland by the Russian imperial army during the 1860s. ^{[47] [48]}
• The Expulsion of the Albanians, 1830–1876 was the coerced and forced displacement of up to 150,000 Albanians from the Principality of Serbia. This event was the precursor to the Albanians' expulsion during the Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878).
• On 26 May 1830, president Andrew Jackson of the United States signed the Indian Removal Act which resulted in the Trail of Tears. ^{[49] [50] [51] [52]}
• In 2005, the historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830–1875. This book repudiates traditional historians, such as Walter Prescott Webb and Rupert N. Richardson, who viewed the settlement of Texas by the displacement of the native populations as a healthful development. Anderson writes that at the time of the outbreak of the American Civil War, when the population of Texas was nearly 600,000, the still-new state was "a very violent place. ... Texans mostly blamed Indians for the violence – an unfair indictment, since a series of terrible droughts had virtually incapacitated the Plains Indians, making them incapable of extended warfare." ^[53]
• The Long Walk of the Navajo was the 1864 ethnic cleansing of the Navajo people by the United States federal government. ^{[54] [55]}
• The Russian Empire was the subject of several cases of ethnic and religious cleansing against minorities, including Catholics (Poles and Lithuanians), Lutherans (Latvians and Estonians), Jews (Pale of Settlement) and Muslims. ^{[56] [ page needed ]}
• The Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878 refers to events of forced migration of Albanian populations from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia and Principality of Montenegro in 1878. These wars, alongside the larger Russo-Ottoman War (1877–78), ended in defeat and substantial territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire which was formalised at the Congress of Berlin. This expulsion was part of the wider persecution of Muslims in the Balkans during the geopolitical and territorial decline of the Ottoman Empire. ^{[57] [58]} Although most of these Albanians were expelled by Serbian forces, a small presence was allowed to remain in the Jablanica valley where their descendants live today. ^{[59] [60] [61] [62]}
• Beginning from about 1848, and extending into the 20th century, the residents of Silesia have been expelled by various governments as their homeland has come under the rule of different states. ^[63]
• In the Prussian Kingdom (since 1871 part of German Empire), nearly 30,000 Poles were expelled for ethnic and religious reasons between 1885 and 1890.

20th century

1900s–1910s

• The Herero and Namaqua genocide was a campaign of racial extermination and collective punishment that the German Empire undertook in German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia) against the Herero, Nama and San people. It is considered the first genocide of the 20th century. ^{[64] [65] [66] [67]} Germany Acknowledges Genocide in Namibia but Stops Short of Reparations
• During the Balkan Wars, ethnic cleansings were carried out in Kosovo, Macedonia, Sandžak and Thrace. At first, they were committed against the Muslim population, but later, they were also committed against Christians. Villages were burned and people were massacred. ^[68] The Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks burned villages and massacred Turkish civilians, but since then, the population of the Turkish-majority areas of the Bulgarian-occupied areas has remained almost unchanged. ^{[69] [70]} The Turks usually massacred Bulgarian and Greek males who lived in the areas which they reoccupied, but they did not massacre any Greeks during the Second Balkan War, the women and children were also raped and frequently slaughtered during each massacre. ^[71] During the Second Balkan War, an ethnic cleansing campaign was carried out by the Ottoman Army and Turkish Bashi-bazouks exterminated the whole Bulgarian population of the Ottoman Adrianople Vilayet (an estimated 300,000 people before the war) and displacing the survivors of the massacres (60,000). ^[72] Under Greek occupation, Bulgarian Macedonians were persecuted, expelled from their homes and forced to move to regions of Greece which are located north of the Bulgarian border. The Bulgarians had expelled 100,000 Greeks from Macedonia and West Thrace before the territories were returned to Greece. ^[73] In addition to the dead, the aftermath of the war counts 890,000 people who permanently left their homes, of whom 400,000 fled to Turkey, 170,000 fled to Greece, 150,000 ^[74] or 280,000 fled to Bulgaria. ^[75] The population size of Bulgarians in Macedonia was mostly reduced by forceful assimilation campaigns through terror, following the ban of the use of the Bulgarian language and declarations which are named "Declare yourself a Serb or die"; signers were required to renounce their Bulgarian identity on paper in Serbia and Greece. ^{[70] [71]} Anywhere between 120,000 and 270,000 Albanians were killed through both wars and 60,000 to 300,000 were deported from Old Serbia by late 1914.
• The 1914 Greek deportations in East Thrace and Anatolia (Turkey) have been described as an ethnic cleansing campaign by scholars Matthias Bjørnlund and Taner Akçam. ^{[76] [77]}
• During the Bulgarian occupation of Serbia in WWI, the civilian population was exposed to various measures of repression, including mass internment, forced labor, and a Bulgarisation policy. Bulgarian policy in Macedonia, and to some degree in occupied Serbia, was motivated by what historian Alan Kramer has termed a 'dynamic of destruction' a desire not just to defeat the enemy militarily, but also to erase all traces of its culture and destroy any evidence that it had ever been there at all. ^[78] Academic Paul Mojzes writes that "ethnic cleansing (at a minimum)" took place during 1915-1918. ^[79]

  

  Greek and Armenian refugee children near Athens, Greece, in 1923, following their expulsion from Turkey.

• The Armenian genocide and the Greek genocide which occurred in Anatolia (Turkey) both during and after World War I was implemented in two phases: Turks committed the wholesale killing of the entire able-bodied male population through massacres and forced labor, this killing was followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and the infirm to the Syrian Desert on death marches. Between 2 and 3 million Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians were killed during this period. ^{[80] [81]} In addition to being described as a genocide, it is often described as an ethnic cleansing campaign in academic literature. Considered a single event by some historians, this genocide was the first genocide of the 20th century and it was also the largest genocide in terms of the number of victims until the Holocaust. ^{[82] [83]}
• The Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Don Cossacks during the Russian Civil War, in 1919–1920. ^[84] Geoffrey Hosking stated "It could be argued that the Red policy towards the Don Cossacks amounted to ethnic cleansing. It was short-lived, however, and soon abandoned because it did not fit with normal Leninist theory and practice". ^[85]
• Through the Interwar period, between 90,000 and 300,000 Albanians were deported from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ^[86] and up to 80,000 were killed during the Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo. ^[87]

1920s–1930s

Greek refugees from Smyrna, 1922

Deportation of the Soviet Koreans in 1937

• In 1920–21, the Greek army on the Yalova-Gemlik Peninsula burned dozens of Turkish/Muslim villages, engaging in large-scale violence and ethnic cleansing. ^[88]
• The population exchange between Greece and Turkey has been described as an ethnic cleansing. ^[89] Over 1.2 million ethnic Greeks were expelled from Turkey in 1922-1924 while Greece expelled 400,000 Muslims. In 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman Greek refugees were still living in Greece. ^[90]
• Pacification of Libya, Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing in the Cyrenaica region of Libya by forcibly removing and relocating 100,000 members of the Cyrenaican indigenous population from their valuable land and property that was slated to be given to Italian settlers. ^[91]
• The Chinese Kuomintang Generals Ma Qi and Ma Bufang launched campaigns of expulsion in Qinghai and Tibet against ethnic Tibetans. The actions of these Generals have been called Genocidal by some authors. ^{[92] [ verification needed ]}
• Authors Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that follow as a Genocide while David Goodman named them ethnic cleansing: The Republic of China supported Ma Bufang when he launched seven extermination expeditions into Golog, eliminating thousands of Tibetans. ^[93] Some Tibetans counted the number of times he attacked them, remembering the seventh attack which made their lives impossible. ^[94] Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and they also destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples. ^{[95] [96] [97]}
• The Mexican Repatriation from 1929 to 1939 in which mass deportations and repatriations of Mexicans and Mexican Americans occurred in response to poverty and nativist fears which were triggered by the Great Depression in the United States has been called ethnic cleansing. An estimated forty to sixty percent of the 355,000 to 2 million people who were repatriated were birthright U.S. citizens – an overwhelming number of them were children. Voluntary repatriations were much more common than deportations. ^{[98] [99] [100]} Legal scholar Kevin Johnson states that it meets modern legal standards for ethnic cleansing, arguing it involved the forced removal of an ethnic minority by the government. ^[101]
• The Simele massacre of 1933 was carried out by the Royal Iraqi Army under the command of Bakr Sidqi, as well as with the participation of Arab and Kurdish tribes. It's estimated that nearly 6,000 Assyrians perished as a result of the massacre, with 100s of villages flattened. ^[102]
• The deportation of 172,000 Soviet Koreans by the Soviet government in September 1937, in which Koreans were moved away from the Korean border and deported to Central Asia, where they were made to do forced labor. ^[103]

1940s

Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany. Poles are led to trains under German army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the German Reich following the invasion.

The bodies of the dead lie awaiting burial in a mass grave at the German concentration camp of Bergen-Belsen

Emaciated corpses of Jewish children in the Warsaw Ghetto

Prisoners sort through shoes thought to belong to Hungarian Jews who were murdered in the gas chambers after arrival to the Auschwitz extermination camp.

Post-World War II border changes of Poland. The respective Polish, German, and Ukrainian populations were expelled, or ethnically cleansed by the Soviet Union and Poland.

Massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area.

• Nazi Germany carried out the Romani genocide or the Porajmos from 1936-1945: the killing of an estimated 130,565 Romani people by Nazi Germany, with some estimates ranging from 220,000 to 500,000. ^[104]
• Nazi Germany carried out the Holocaust from 1938-1945: The murder of an estimated 6 million Jews both inside Germany and throughout German occupied territories, and some of its independent allies such as the governments of Romania, ^[105] Hungary, ^[106] and Bulgaria ^[107] (outside Bulgarian core territories).
• Nazi Germany carried out the murder of an estimated 1.795 million non-Jewish Poles. ^[108]
• Nazi Germany carried out the murder of an estimated 3,000,000 Ukrainians. ^[109]
• Nazi Germany carried out the murder of an estimated 1,593,000 Russians. ^[109]
• Nazi Germany carried out the murder of an estimated 1,400,000 Byelorussians. ^[109]
• The Independent State of Croatia (NDH) led by the Ustaše regime carried out genocide and ethnic cleansing against Serbs, Roma, and Jews by expelling them, mass executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps such as Jasenovac. ^{[110] [111]} Between 200,000-500,000 Serbs, and approximately 25,000 Roma and 30,000 Jews were killed in the NDH. ^{[112] [113]}
• Chetnik atrocities against Bosniaks and Croats in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1941 to 1945 have been characterised as organised ethnic cleansing. It is estimated that around 32,000 Croats (20,000 from Croatia, and 12,000 from Bosnia) and 33,000 Bosniaks were killed. ^{[114] : 86  [115] : 556–557}
• Population transfers in the Soviet Union during and after World War II on the orders of Joseph Stalin, including the deportation of the Karachays, deportation of the Balkars, deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, deportation of the Meskhetian Turks, deportation of Romanians from Bucovina and Hertsa and the deportation of the Kalmyks. ^[116] Nearly 3.5 million ethnic minorities were resettled during 1940–1952. ^[117]
• Towards the end of World War II, over 16,600 ethnic Albanian Muslims were expelled from the coastal region of Epirus in northwestern Greece by the EDES paramilitary organization, supported by the state. ^[118]
• The expulsion of 14 million ethnic Germans from the Central and Eastern European countries of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland (including former German territories annexed to it), Romania, and Yugoslavia after World War II. This policy was sanctioned by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference (though not for Romania or Yugoslavia). ^{[119] [120] [121]}
• The 1945-1947 Czechoslovak deportations of ethnic Hungarians from Slovakia to Czech lands. ^[122]
• In 1945, Dutch minister of Justice Hans Kolfschoten planned to forcibly deport all Germans living in the Netherlands. Ultimately, about 15% of German residents were deported.
• During the Partition of India 6 million Muslims fled ethnic violence taking place in India to settle in what became Pakistan (and by 1971, Bangladesh) and 5 million Hindus and Sikhs fled from what became Pakistan and Bangladesh, to settle in India. The events which occurred during this time period have been described as ethnic cleansing by Ishtiaq Ahmed ^{[123] [124]} and by Barbara and Thomas R. Metcalf. ^[125]
• In 1947, the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus took place. It was an ethnic cleansing operated by Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslavian communist partisans against Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians which forced 230,000-350,000 Italians to flee the former territories of the Kingdom of Italy towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. ^{[126] [127]} From 1947, after the war, they were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, ^[128] which gave them little option other than emigration. ^{[129] [130] [131]} In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. ^[132] The type of attack was state terrorism ^[133] and ethnic cleansing against Italians. ^{[133] [134] [135] [136] [137]}
• In 1947, the Jammu Massacre took place. The event has been described as ethnic cleansing of Muslims in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir. ^{[138] [139]}

  

  Between 1947 and 1949, at least 750,000 Palestinians were expelled from their homes or made to flee from what is now Israel in an event called the Nakba.

• The Nakba or 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight during the 1948 Palestine war, which involved the expulsion of much of the native population of Palestine, has been considered to be ethnic cleansing by several scholars, such as Ilan Pappé, Mark Levene, Ronit Lentin, Derek Penslar, Yair Auron, and Alon Confino. ^[141] Pappé wrote that the ethnic cleansing was enacted by operations such as Plan Dalet. ^[142] Benny Morris in 2016 rejected the description of "ethnic cleansing" while also stating that the label of "partial ethnic cleansing" was debatable; in 2004 Morris responded to the claim of "ethnic cleansing" occurring in 1948 by stating that there were "circumstances in history that justify ethnic cleansing ... It was necessary to cleanse the hinterland ... ['cleanse' was] the term they used at the time ... there was no choice but to expel the Palestinian population [given the alternative was genocide of our own people]. To uproot it in the course of war"; Morris said this resulted in a "partial" expulsion of Arabs. ^{[143] [144]} While the war saw 700,000 Palestinians displaced (by U.N. estimates) and approximately 400 Palestinian towns and villages destroyed, the causes of the mass displacement remain a matter of ongoing debate. ^[142]

1950s

A colour photograph of two young Yemenite Jews in Ma'abarot refugee camps.

• In 1950–1951 over 150,000 Turks were forcefully evicted from Bulgaria. ^[145]
• From 5–6 September 1955, the Istanbul pogrom or "Septembrianá"/"Σεπτεμβριανά", secretly backed by the Turkish government, was launched against the Greek population of Istanbul. The mob also attacked some Jewish and Armenian residents of the city. The event contributed greatly to the gradual extinction of the Greek minority in the city and throughout the entire country, which numbered 100,000 in 1924 after the Turko-Greek population exchange treaty. By 2006 there were only 2,500 Greeks living in Istanbul. ^{[146] [ better source needed ]}
• The Jewish exodus from Muslim countries, the flight of over 1 million Jews of the Islamic world, mainly Mizrahi and Sephardic. Many Arab governments, such as Gaddafi's Libya, Nasserist Egypt, and Hafez al-Assad's Syria, confiscated Jewish bank accounts and property of Jews who had departed, in addition to placing laws restricting Jewish business. The episode is sometimes labelled one of ethnic cleansing. ^{[147] [148] [149] [150]}

1960s

• On 5 July 1960, five days after the Congo gained independence from Belgium, the Force Publique garrison near Léopoldville mutinied against its white officers and attacked numerous European targets. This caused fear among the approximately 100,000 whites still resident in the Congo and led to their mass exodus from the country. ^[151]
• Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians. They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprises a few years later in 1964. ^{[152] [ verification needed ]}
• The 1962 Rajshahi massacres in East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh) witnessed the killing of minorities, mostly Buddhists and Hindus, by Muslims. ^[153] More than 3,000 non-Muslims were killed. ^[154] In 1958, Ayub Khan came to power in Pakistan, and from the beginning the policy of the Ayub Regime was to cleanse East Pakistan of Bengali Hindus and other minorities. There was also arson, rapes, and looting. ^[155] This ethnic cleansing campaign resulted in the migration of 11,000 Santhals and Rajbanshis to India. ^[156]
• In 1964, the 1964 East Pakistan riots occurred which resulted in more than 10,000 Bengali Hindus being targeted and systematically killed by Bengali Muslims. ^[157] In the village of Mainam near Nagaon in Rajshahi District all Hindus except 2 little girls were massacred. ^[158] This resulted in more than 135,000 refugees. ^[157] Hundreds of villages around Dhaka city were burnt to ashes. ^[159] This left more than 100,000 Hindus homeless. ^[160] 95% of the ruined houses belonged to Hindus who lived in Old Dhaka. ^[160]
• In 1967, during the Six-Day War, between 280,000 and 325,000 Palestinians were displaced from the West Bank and Gaza Strip (the Naksa), partly as a result of direct expulsions and the intentional destruction of villages by the Israeli military. ^[161]
• The expulsion of the Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago by the United Kingdom, at the request of the United States to establish a military base, started in 1968 and concluded in 1973. ^{[162] [163]}

1970s

• The Arab Belt program was an ethnic cleansing campaign launched by the Ba'athist Syrian government of Hafez al-Assad between 1973 and 1976. ^{[164] [165] [166]} By implementing its Arab Belt programme, the Syrian government sought to change the demographics of northern parts of the Al-Hasakah region by sending Arab settlers, and change its ethnic composition of the population in favor of Arabs to the detriment of other ethnic groups, particularly the Syrian Kurds. ^{[167] [168]} By the end of the programme in 1976, Syrian government forcibly deported approximately 140,000 Kurds living in 332 villages and confiscated their lands around a 180-mile strip across the north-eastern boundary-regions of Syria with Turkey and Iraq. Tens of thousands of Arab settlers coming from Raqqa were then granted these lands to establish settlements by the Ba'athist government. ^{[169] [170]}
• There was an ethnic cleansing of the Greek population of the areas under Turkish military occupation in Cyprus in 1974–76 during and after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This has been the subject of litigation in the European Court of Human Rights in cases including Loizidou v. Turkey and the European Court of Justice in cases like Apostolides v Orams. ^{[171] [172] [173]}
• Following the U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam in 1973 and the communist victory two years later, the Kingdom of Laos's coalition government was overthrown by the communists. The Hmong people, who had actively supported the anti-communist government, became targets of retaliation and persecution. The government that took over in Laos has been accused of committing Genocide against the Hmong, ^{[174] [175]} with up to 100,000 killed. ^[176]
• The Communist Khmer Rouge government in Cambodia disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups, including ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese and Thais. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia; by 1984, as a result of Khmer Rouge genocide and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The small Thai minority along the border was almost completely exterminated, with only a few thousand managing to reach safety in Thailand. The Muslim Cham Minority suffered serious purges with as much as 80% of their population exterminated. The Khmer's racial supremacist ideology was responsible for this ethnic purge. A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth "The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the Khmers" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9). ^{[177] [178]}
• Subsequent waves of hundreds of thousands of Rohingya fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 250,000 in 1978 as a result of the Operation Dragon King in Arakan. ^{[179] [180]}

1980s

• The forced assimilation campaign during 1984–1985 directed against ethnic Turks by the Bulgarian State resulted in the mass emigration of some 360,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey in 1989 has been characterized as ethnic cleansing. ^{[181] [182] [183]}
• In May 1985, following an armed incident near the Niger-Libya border, all non-Nigerien Tuaregs were expelled from the country.
• In 1989 Uzbek nationalists attacked Meskhetian Turkish minority causing Fergana Valley massacre. 112 people were killed, 1032 injured, 17,000 Meskhetian Turks were evacuated immediately by Soviet troops and 60,000 Meskhetian Turks left Uzbekistan. ^[184]
• The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has resulted in the displacement of populations from both sides. Among the displaced are 700,000 Azerbaijanis and several Kurds from ethnic Armenian-controlled territories including Armenia and areas of Nagorno-Karabakh, ^[185] more than 353,000 Armenians were forced to flee from territories controlled by Azerbaijan plus some 80,000 had to flee Armenian border territories. ^[186]

1990s

The cemetery at the Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery to Genocide Victims

Bhutanese refugees in Nepal

Ethnic cleansing of a Croatian home

An elderly Serb refugee in a tractor trailer leaving her home during Operation Storm

Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999

• In 1990, inter-ethnic tensions escalated in Bhutan, resulting in the flight of many Lhotshampa, or ethnic Nepalis, from Bhutan to Nepal, many of whom were expelled by the Bhutanese military. By 1996, over 100,000 Bhutanese refugees were living in refugee camps in Nepal. Many have since been resettled in Western nations. ^[187] One reason for this expulsion was the desire of the Bhutanese government to remove a largely Hindu population and preserve its Buddhist culture and identity. ^[188]
• In 1991, as part of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, during Operation Ring, Soviet troops and the predominantly Azerbaijani soldiers in the AzSSR OMON and army forcibly uprooted Armenians living in the 24 villages strewn across Shahumyan to leave their homes and settle elsewhere in Nagorno-Karabakh or in the neighboring Armenian SSR. ^[189] Human rights organizations documented a wide number of human rights violations and abuses committed by Soviet and Azerbaijani forces and many of them properly characterised them as ethnic cleansing. These violations and abuses included forced deportations of civilians, unlawful killings, torture, kidnapping harassment, rape and the wanton seizure or destruction of property. ^{[190] [191]} Despite fierce protests, no measures were taken either to prevent the human rights abuses or to punish the perpetrators. ^[190] Approximately 17,000 Armenians living in twenty-three of Shahumyan's villages were deported out of the region. ^[192]
• In 1991, following a major crackdown on Rohingya Muslims in Burma, 250,000 refugees took shelter in the Cox's Bazar district of neighboring Bangladesh. ^[193]
• After the Gulf War in 1991, Kuwait conducted a campaign of expulsion against the Palestinians living in the country, who before the war had numbered 400,000. Some 200,000 who had fled during the Iraqi occupation were banned from returning, while the remaining 200,000 were pressured into leaving by the authorities, who conducted a campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure to get them to leave. ^[194] The Kuwaiti Palestinians expelled from Kuwait moved to Jordan, where they had citizenship. ^[195]
• As a result of the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War, about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled South Ossetia and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia and settled in other parts of Georgia. ^[196]
• According to Helsinki Watch, the campaign of ethnic-cleansing was orchestrated by the Ossetian militants, during the events of the Ossetian–Ingush conflict, which resulted in the expulsion of approximately 60,000 Ingush inhabitants from Prigorodny District. ^[197]
• The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the Croatian War of Independence that was committed by Serb-led Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and rebel militia in the occupied areas of Croatia (self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina) (1991–1995). Large numbers of Croats and non-Serbs were removed, either by murder, deportation or by being forced to flee. According to the ICTY indictment against Slobodan Milošević, estimates of the total number of expelled Croats and other non-Serbs during the Croatian War of Independence range between 170,000 (ICTY), ^[198] to 250,000 (Human Rights Watch), ^[199] in addition to an estimated 10,000 Croats who were also killed. ^[200] Also, around 10,000 or more Croats left Vojvodina in 1992 due to persecution by Serb nationalists. ^[201] Milan Martić, ^[202] Milan Babić, ^[203] Vojislav Šešelj, ^{[204] [205]} Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović ^{[206] [207]} were convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) or Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (MICT) for persecution on racial, ethnic or religious ground, deportation and/or forcible displacement as a crime against humanity.
• In February 1992, hundreds of ethnic Azeris ^[208] and Meskhetian Turks ^[209] were massacred as Armenian troops captured the city of Khojaly in Nagorno-Karabakh. ^[210]
• Widespread ethnic cleansing accompanied the War in Bosnia (1992–1995). Large numbers of Croats and Bosniaks were forced to flee their homes by the Army of the Republika Srpska, large numbers of Serbs and Bosniaks by the Croatian Defence Council and Serbs and Croats by the Army of Bosnia and Herzegovina. ^[211] Beginning in 1991, political upheavals in the Balkans displaced about 2,700,000 people by mid-1992, of which over 700,000 sought asylum in other parts of Europe. ^{[212] [213]} In September 1994, UNHCR representatives estimated around 80,000 non-Serbs out of 837,000 who initially lived on the Serb-controlled territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina before the war remained there; an estimated removal of 90% of the Bosniak and Croat inhabitants of Serb-coveted territory, almost all of whom were deliberately forced out of their homes. ^[214] It also includes ethnic cleansing of non-Croats in the breakaway state the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia. ^[215] The ICTY convicted several officials for persecution, forced transfer and/or deportation, including Momčilo Krajišnik, ^[216] Radoslav Brđanin, ^[217] Stojan Župljanin, Mićo Stanišić, ^[218] Biljana Plavšić, ^[219] Jovica Stanišić. Franko Simatović, ^[206] Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić. ^[220]
• The Rwandan genocide occurred from 7 April to 19 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. ^[221] Over a span of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were systematically killed by Hutu militias. While the Rwandan Constitution states that over 1 million people were killed, most scholarly estimates suggest between 500,000 and 662,000 Tutsi died, mostly men. ^{[222] [223] [224]} The genocide amounted to ethnic cleansing. ^{[225] [226]} It was marked by extreme violence, with victims often murdered by neighbours, and widespread sexual violence, with between 250,000 and 500,000 women raped. ^{[227] [228]} The genocide was rooted in long-standing ethnic tensions, most recently from the Rwandan Hutu Revolution from 1959 to 1962, which resulted in Rwandan Tutsi fleeing to Uganda due to the ethnic violence that had occurred. Hostilities were then exacerbated further due to the Rwandan Civil War, which began in 1990 when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a predominantly Tutsi rebel group, invaded Rwanda from Uganda. The war reached a tentative peace with the Arusha Accords in 1993. However, the assassination of President Juvénal Habyarimana on 6 April 1994 ignited the genocide, as Hutu extremists used the power vacuum to target Tutsi and moderate Hutu leaders. ^[229]
• Exodus of between 100,000 and 200,000 Krajina Serbs during and after the Croatian Army's Operation Storm. ^[230] Some investigators and academics describe this event as ethnic cleansing. ^{[231] [232] [233]} Historian Marko Attila Hoare disagrees that the operation was an act of ethnic cleansing, and points out that the Krajina Serb leadership evacuated the civilian population as a response to the Croatian offensive; whatever their intentions, the Croatians never had the chance to organise their removal. ^{[234] [ page range too broad ] [235] [ self-published source? ]} The ICTY indicted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Ivan Čermak and Mladen Markač for war crimes for their roles in the operation, charging them with participating in a joint criminal enterprise (JCE) aimed at the permanent removal of Serbs from the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) held part of Croatia. Gotovina and Markač were convicted and Čermak was acquitted in April 2011. ^[236] In November 2012, the ICTY Appeals Chamber acquitted Gotovina and Markač, reversing its earlier judgement by a 3–2 decision. ^[237] The Appeals Chamber ruled that there was insufficient evidence to conclude the existence of a joint criminal enterprise to remove Serb civilians by force and further stated that while the Croatian Army and Special Police committed crimes after the artillery assault, the state and military leadership could not be held responsible for their planning and creation. ^[238]
• At least 700,000 Kosovo Albanians were deported from Kosovo between 1998 and 1999 during the Kosovo War. ^[239] The ICTY convicted several officials for persecution, forced displacement and/or deportation, including Nikola Šainović, Dragoljub Ojdanić and Nebojša Pavković. ^[240]
• In the aftermath of Kosovo War between 200,000 and 250,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo. ^{[241] [242] [243]}
• The forced displacement and ethnic cleansing of more than 250,000 people, mostly Georgians but some others too, from Abkhazia during the conflict and after in 1993 and 1998. ^[244]
• The mass expulsion of southern Lhotshampas (Bhutanese of Nepalese origin) by the northern Druk majority in Bhutan in 1990. ^[245] The number of refugees is approximately 103,000.^{[ citation needed ]}
• The expulsion of Brus in Mizoram occurred due ethnic tension and disenfranchisement. It oversaw the expulsion of 35000-40000 Bru people in Mizoram following ethnic riots. The Bru people formed refugee camps out of state in poor conditions and have been largely unsuccessful in repatriation. ^{[246] [247]}
• The May 1998 riots of Indonesia targeted many Chinese Indonesians. Suffering from looting and arson, many Chinese Indonesians fled from Indonesia. ^{[248] [249]}
• There have been serious outbreaks of inter-ethnic violence on the island of Kalimantan since 1997, involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura. In 2001 in the Central Kalimantan town of Sampit, at least 500 Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the headhunting tradition of the Dayaks of old. ^[250]
• From the end of the Kosovo War in June 1999, about 80% of Kosovo's Romanis were expelled, amounting to approximately 100,000 expellees. ^{[251] : 82} For the 1999–2006 period, the European Roma Rights Centre documented numerous crimes perpetrated by Kosovo's ethnic Albanians with the purpose to purge the region of its Romani population along with other non-Albanian ethnic communities. These crimes included murder, abduction and illegal detention, torture, rape, arson, confiscation of houses and other property and forced labour. Whole Romani settlements were burned to the ground by Albanians. ^{[251] : 82} The Romani community of Kosovo is regarded to be, for the most part, annihilated. ^{[251] : 93}

21st century

2000s

Further information: 1999 East Timorese crisis

• In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti Pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. Makelo asked the UN Security Council to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide. ^{[252] [253]}
• From the late 1990s to the early 2000s, Indonesian paramilitaries organized and armed by Indonesian military and police killed or expelled large numbers of civilians in East Timor. ^[254] After the East Timorese people voted for independence in a 1999 referendum, Indonesian paramilitaries retaliated, murdering Separatists and levelling most towns. More than 200,000 people either fled or were forcibly taken to Indonesia before East Timor achieved full independence. ^[255]
• Since the mid-1990s the central government of Botswana has been trying to move the San people, also known as Bushmen, out of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. As of October 2005, the government has resumed its policy of forcing all San off their lands in the Game Reserve, using armed police and threats of violence or death. ^[256] Many of the involuntarily displaced San live in squalid resettlement camps and some have resorted to prostitution and alcoholism, while about 250 others remain or have surreptitiously returned to the Kalahari to resume their independent lifestyle. ^[257] Festus Mogae defended the actions, saying, "How can we continue to have Stone Age creatures in an age of computers?" ^{[258] [259]}
• Since 2003, Sudan has been widely accused of carrying out a Genocide Campaign against several black ethnic groups in Darfur, in response to a rebellion by Africans alleging mistreatment. Sudanese irregular militia known as the Janjaweed and Sudanese military and police forces killed an estimated 200,000, expelled around two million, and burned 800 villages. ^[260] A 14 July 2007 article noted that in the previous two months up to 75,000 Arabs from Chad and Niger crossed the border into Darfur. Most were relocated by the Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people. Some 200,000 were killed and 2.5 million were forced to flee to refugee camps in Chad after their homes and villages were destroyed. ^[261]
• At least one additional thousand Serbs fled their homes during the 2004 unrest in Kosovo and numerous religious and cultural objects were burned down. ^{[262] [263]}
• During the Iraq Civil War and consequent Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013), entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias. ^{[264] [265]} Some areas were evacuated by every member of a particular group due to lack of security, moving into new areas because of fear of reprisal killings. As of 21 June 2007, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that 2.2 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 2 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month. ^{[266] [267] [268]}
• The Assyrian exodus from Iraq from 2003 until present is often described as ethnic cleansing. Although Iraqi Christians represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the refugees now living in nearby countries, according to UNHCR. ^{[269] [270]} In the 16th century, Christians constituted half of Iraq's population. ^[271] In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians. ^[272] Following the 2003 invasion and the resultant growth of militant Islamism, Christians' total numbers slumped to about 500,000, of whom 250,000 live in Baghdad. ^[273] Furthermore, the Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the risk of elimination due to the ongoing atrocities by Islamic extremists. ^{[274] [275]} A 25 May 2007 article noted that in the past 7 months only 69 people from Iraq had been granted refugee status in the United States. ^[276]
• In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad. ^[277] This population numbered about 150,000. ^[278] Nigerien government forces forcibly rounded up Arabs in preparation for deportation, during which two girls died, reportedly after fleeing government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. Niger's government eventually suspended the plan. ^[279]
• In 1950, the Karen had become the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against the military dictatorship in Burma. The conflict continues as of 2008. In 2004, the BBC, citing aid agencies, estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly Karen, living in refugee camps on the Thai side of the border. Many accuse the military government of Burma of ethnic cleansing. ^[280] As a result of the ongoing war in minority group areas more than two million people have fled Burma to Thailand. ^[281]
• Civil unrest in Kenya erupted in December 2007. ^[282] By 28 January 2008, the death toll from the violence was at around 800. ^[283] The United Nations estimated that as many as 600,000 people have been displaced. ^{[284] [285]} A government spokesman claimed that Odinga's supporters were "engaging in ethnic cleansing". ^[286]
• The 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra began on 3 February 2008. Incidences of violence against North Indians and their property were reported in Mumbai, Pune, Aurangabad, Beed, Nashik, Amravati, Jalna and Latur. Nearly 25,000 North Indian workers fled Pune, ^{[287] [288]} and another 15,000 fled Nashik in the wake of the attacks. ^{[289] [290]}
• In May 2008, xenophobic riots erupted in South Africa. Within three weeks 80,000 were displaced and 62 killed, with 670 injured in the violence when South Africans ejected non-nationals in a nationwide ethnic cleansing/xenophobic outburst. The most affected foreigners were Somalis, Ethiopians, Indians, Pakistanis, Zimbabweans and Mozambiqueans. Local South Africans were also caught up in the violence. Arvin Gupta, a senior UNHCR protection officer, said the UNHCR did not agree with the City of Cape Town that those displaced by the violence should be held at camps across the city. ^[291]
• In August 2008, the 2008 South Ossetia war broke out when Georgia launched a military offensive against South Ossetian separatists, leading to military intervention by Russia, during which Georgian forces were expelled from the separatist territories of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. During the fighting, 15,000 ^[292] ethnic Georgians living in South Ossetia were forced to flee to Georgia proper, and Ossetian militias burned their villages to the Ground to prevent their return.

2010s

Refugees of the fighting in the Central African Republic, 19 January 2014

• Strategic demographic and cultural cleansing by the Sinhala Buddhist majority of the Muslim and Tamil minorities in Sri Lanka. ^[293]
• The killing of hundreds of ethnic Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan during the 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes resulting in the flight of thousands of Uzbek refugees to Uzbekistan has been called ethnic cleansing by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and international media. ^{[294] [295]}
• Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were accused of attempting a racial cleansing of African Americans in Azusa, California. ^[296]
• During the Syrian civil war, the government of Bashar al-Assad launched ethnic cleansing campaigns throughout Syria to re-shape Syrian demographics, and the military operations of Syrian Arab Armed Forces have been compared to the tactics of Serbian militant groups during the Bosnian war. Between 2011 and 2015, Ba'athist militias perpetrated at least 49 ethno-sectarian massacres for the purpose of implementing the Assad government's social engineering agenda in the country. Alawite loyalist militias, known as the Shabiha , were deployed by the Assad regime into Sunni villages and towns, where they perpetrated numerous anti-Sunni massacres. Assadist militias and Iran-backed Shia militant groups launched large-scale pogroms and deportations in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas. ^{[297] [298] [299]} In 2016, the United Nations denounced Bashar al-Assad for perpetrating an ethnic cleansing campaign in Darayya district in Damascus. ^[300] The violent campaigns of Assad regime against the Syrian population resulted in the Syrian refugee crisis; causing the forced displacement of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees. ^[301] This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest refugee crisis in the world; and UNHCR High Commissioner Filippo Grandi has described it as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering." ^{[302] [303]}
• An estimated 90,000 people were displaced in the sectarian violence between Rohingya Muslims and Buddhists in Burma's western Rakhine State in 2012. ^{[179] [304]}
• Approximately 400,000 people were displaced in the ethnic violence between indigenous Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam, India, in 2012. ^[305]
• Sources inside the Syriac Orthodox Church reported in 2012 that an ethnic cleansing of Syrian Christians was carried out by anti-government rebels. ^{[306] [307]}
• As part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Rohingya Muslims, more than 50 people were killed in the 2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots. ^[308]
• In 2014 ISIS began to attack Iraq's minorities, causing the Yazidi genocide ^[309] and Iraqi Turkmen genocide. ^[310]
• In 2015, Turkish Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoglu publicly accused Russia and Syria of ethnic cleansing against the Syrian Turkmen minority. ^[311] Only a few thousand Turkmen now live in Syria, in contrast to the 200,000–300,000 Turks who lived there before the Syrian Civil War. ^[312] Thousands of Turkmen villagers have fled the country to escape Russian bombing. The minority also faced persecution prior to the war; and were forced to stop speaking their dialect. ^{[313] [314]}

  

  Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, March 2017

• In 2017 a new wave of government sanctioned ethnic cleansing ^[315] against Rohingya Muslims amounting to genocide ^[316] with thousands killed and many villages burned to the ground with their inhabitants executed has been reported in Myanmar, ^{[317] [318] [316] [319] [320]} to the extent that children have reported to be beheaded or burned alive by the Myanmar military and Buddhist vigilantes. ^{[321] [322] [323]}
• The ongoing Turkish occupation of northern Syria has seen ethnic cleansing of Kurds, Christians, Yazidis, and other minorities, especially in the Afrin District, where 150,000–300,000 Kurds were displaced. The Turkish state has been resettling Afrin with Arab Syrian refugees. ^{[324] [325]}
• Some commentators have argued that the persecution of Uyghurs in China has involved a campaign of ethnic cleansing ^{[326] [327] [328] [329]} orchestrated by the Chinese government against the Uyghur people and other ethnic and religious minorities in and around the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) of the People's Republic of China. ^{[330] [331] [332]} Since 2014, ^[333] the Chinese government, under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, has pursued policies leading to more than one million Muslims ^{[334] [335] [336] [337] [338]} (the majority of them Uyghurs) being held in secretive internment camps without any legal process ^{[339] [340]} in what has become the largest-scale and most systematic detention of ethnic and religious minorities since the Holocaust. ^{[341] [342] [343]}

2020s

Mass grave of civilians in Tigray, 2021

1,500 Ukrainian children from Kherson and Zaporizhzhia at Yevpatoria, Russian-occupied Crimea, October 2022

• The War in Tigray has been described as an ongoing ethnic cleansing perpetrated by Ethiopia against ethnic Tigrayans. New IDs have been prescribed to Tigrayans, and many Tigrayans living in other Ethiopian regions have been subject to "ethnically selective purges". ^[344] Ethiopia has also weaponized famine as a key war tactic in Tigray, leaving an estimated 90% of the population vulnerable to famine. All electricity has been cut off by Ethiopia, disrupting Tigray's communication with the outside world. One schoolteacher recalled, "Even if someone was dead, they shot them again, dozens of times. I saw this. I saw many bodies, even priests. They killed all Tigrayans." ^{[345] [344]}
• During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, reports indicated that between 900,000 and 1.6 million Ukrainians on the Russian-occupied territories were deported to Russia, including 260,000 children. At least 18 filtration camps were established along the Russian border to facilitate this transfer. ^[346] These crimes were alleged to be a form of depopulation and ethnic cleansing of Ukraine by the Russian military on the order of Russia's leader Vladimir Putin. ^{[347] [348]} In 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued an arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin and Maria Lvova-Belova for unlawful deportation and forcible transfer of population (children) from occupied areas of Ukraine to Russia. ^[349]

  

  Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians in September 2023

• In 2022 Azerbaijan launched a nine-month blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh, destroyed public utilities and abducted several civilians. In September 2023, Azerbaijan then launched a military offensive and regained control over Nagorno-Karabakh, which had been internationally recognized as part of its territory. Fears of persecution led indigenous Armenian inhabitants of the region to flee to Armenia from 24 September onward. By 3 October, 100,617 refugees, more than 99% of Nagorno-Karabakh's population, had fled to Armenia. ^{[350] [351] [352]} Azerbaijan's blockade and its military offensive have been described as ethnic cleansing and genocide. ^{[353] [354] [355] [356]}
• During the Sudanese civil war, many civilians were killed in Darfur in the Masalit massacres, which have been described as ethnic cleansing or genocide. ^[357] RSF militias have been accused of committing ethnic cleansing against the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa peoples. ^{[358] [359]}

  

  Displaced Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, April 2024

• On 13 October 2023, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) ordered the evacuation of 1.1 million people from north Gaza, ^[360] following the October 7 Hamas-led attack on Israel. UN Special rapporteur Francesca Albanese warned of a mass ethnic cleansing in Gaza. ^[361] On 13 October 2023, journalist Eric Levitz of The Intelligencer argued U.S. governmental administrations, including the Biden administration, have approved Israeli war crimes against Palestinians in the Gaza war, and that no military solution can achieve Israel's security goals short of ethnic cleansing and genocide. ^[362] In January 2024, genocide scholar Mark Levene detailed how Israel's actions are ethnic cleansing at the very least, in line with Israeli intelligence ministry's policy paper for a forcible and permanent transfer of all Gazans, supported by Netanyahu's government. ^[363]

See also

Main article: Outline of genocide studies

• Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
• Genocide of indigenous peoples
• Genocides in history
• List of diasporas
• List of ethnic riots
• List of expulsions of African Americans
• List of genocides
• List of war crimes
• Population transfer in the Soviet Union

References

1. Garrity, Meghan M (27 September 2023). ""Ethnic Cleansing": An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity". Political Science Quarterly. 138 (4): 469–489. doi:10.1093/psquar/qqad082.
2. "Ethnic cleansing". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
3. "Babylonian Captivity". Encyclopedia Britannica. 3 May 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
4. Crowe, D. (2014). War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History. Springer. p. 8. ISBN   978-1-137-03701-5.
5. Landes, Richard (2011). "The Melian Dialogue, the Protocols, and the Paranoid Imperative". The Paranoid Apocalypse. New York University Press. ISBN   978-0-8147-4893-0.
6. "Genocide in the Ancient World". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
7. Loukopoulou (2004), pp. 909–910. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLoukopoulou2004 (help)
8. Kiernan, Ben (4 August 2004). "The First Genocide: Carthage, 146 BC" . Diogenes. 51 (3): 27–39. doi:10.1177/0392192104043648 – via Cambridge University Press.
9. Jonassohn & Björnson 1998, p. 191. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJonassohnBjörnson1998 (help)
10. Stubbersfield 2022, p. 20. sfn error: no target: CITEREFStubbersfield2022 (help)
11. Courtieu 2019, p. 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCourtieu2019 (help)
12. Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and soil : a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 59. ISBN   978-0-300-10098-3. OCLC   79860405.
13. Raaflaub, Kurt (2021). "Caesar and Genocide: Confronting the Dark Side of Caesar's Gallic Wars". New England Classical Journal. 48 (1): 54–80. doi: 10.52284/NECJ/48.1/article/raaflaub . S2CID   236550544.
14. Chirot, Daniel; Edwards, Jennifer (2003). "Making Sense of the Senseless: Understanding Genocide". Contexts. 2 (2): 12–19. doi:10.1525/ctx.2003.2.2.12. ISSN   1536-5042. S2CID   62687633.
15. Heinrichs 2008, p. 208. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHeinrichs2008 (help)
16. Roymans 2004, p. 23. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoymans2004 (help)
17. Kerkeslager, Allen; Setzer, Claudia; Trebilco, Paul; Goodblatt, David (2006). "The Diaspora From 66 to c. 235 CE". In T. Katz (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4 (Steven ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.004. ISBN   978-0-521-77248-8. The campaign of ethnic cleansing appears to have been a devastating success. A gap in the extant evidence for Jews in Cyrenaica confirms that the area was essentially emptied of Jews by their migration into Egypt and the subsequent Gentile massacres of stragglers. Few if any Jews survived anywhere in Cyprus. Papyri and inscriptions testify to the annihilation of entire Jewish communities in many parts of Egypt.50 Only in remote areas on the fringes of Roman control could any Jews have remained alive in the affected regions. It is unlikely that any Jews remained in Alexandria after the war ended in the late summer of 117.
18. Melikian, Souren (22 August 2008). "The 'peaceful' Hadrian and his endless wars". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
19. Beard, M. (2008), "A very modern emperor", The Guardian, retrieved 12 September 2023, In the end, Hadrian's forces had to resort to the most ruthless form of ethnic cleansing, constructive starvation and mass slaughter of the enemy that went far beyond the casualties inflicted by the Jews.
20. 《晉書·卷一百七》("Jìnshū Juǎn Yī Bǎi Qī") Jin Shu Original text 閔躬率趙人誅諸胡羯，無貴賤男女少長皆斬之，死者二十余萬，屍諸城外，悉為野犬豺狼所食。屯據四方者，所在承閔書誅之，于時高鼻多須至有濫死者半。(Mǐn gōng lǜ zhào rén zhū zhū hú jié, wú guìjiàn nánnǚ shǎo cháng jiē zhǎn zhī, sǐzhě èrshí yú wàn, shī zhūchéng wài, xī wéi yě quǎn cháiláng suǒ shí. Tún jù sìfāng zhě, suǒzài chéng mǐn shū zhū zhī, yú shí gāo bí duō xū zhì yǒu làn sǐzhě bàn.)
21. Potter & Chuipka 2010. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPotterChuipka2010 (help)
22. Viegas 2010. sfn error: no target: CITEREFViegas2010 (help)
23. Kapelle 1979, p. 3. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKapelle1979 (help)
24. Rex 2004, p. 108. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRex2004 (help)
25. Jones, Adam (2006). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers. ISBN 978-0-415-35385-4. p.3
26. The Encyclopedia of Genocide, ABC-CLIO, 1999, p. 48, article "Afghanistan, Genocide of"
27. Wyatt, Don J. (2021). "Slavery and the Mongol Empire". In Allen, Richard B. (ed.). Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900. BRILL. p. 111. ISBN   9789004469655.
28. Buchstein, Fred (2001). "The History of the Mongol Conquests" . The Journal of Military History. 65 (4). Lexington: 1081–1082. doi:10.2307/2677636. JSTOR   2677636. S2CID   162821241.
29. The Secret History of the Mongols: Translated, Annotated, and with an Introduction by Urgunge Onon (2001). pp. 53-54, 57, 61, 111-135, 205
30. Richards, Eric (2004). Britannia's children: emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN   1-85285-441-3.
31. A brief History of Ethnic Cleansing, by Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, p. 4
32. Saldanha, Arun (2012). Deleuze and Race. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 51, 70. ISBN   978-0-7486-6961-5.
33. McDonnell, M. A.; Moses, A. D. (2005). "Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas". Journal of Genocide Research . 7 (4): 501–529. doi:10.1080/14623520500349951. S2CID   72663247.
34. Sousa, Ashley (2016). "Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson" . Journal of Southern History. 82 (1): 135–136. doi:10.1353/soh.2016.0023. ISSN   2325-6893. S2CID   159731284.
35. Rogers, Joe (30 April 2018). From an Irish Market Town. Publishamerica Incorporated. ISBN   9781456043087 – via Google Books.
36. Horning, Audrey (2013). Ireland in the Virginian Sea. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/9781469610733_horning. ISBN   9781469610726. JSTOR   10.5149/9781469610733_horning.
37. Hallinan, Conn Malachi (1977). "The Subjugation and Division of Ireland: Testing Ground for Colonial Policy". Crime and Social Justice (8): 53–57. JSTOR   29766019.
38. • Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"
    • Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.."
    • David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing.."
    • Frances Stewart Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine (2000). War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1 (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. p. 51 "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
    • Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"
    • Tim Pat Coogan (2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. ISBN   978-0-312-29418-2. p 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide."
    • Peter Berresford Ellis (2002). Eyewitness to Irish History, John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN   978-0-471-26633-4. p. 108 "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."
    • John Morrill (2003). Rewriting Cromwell – A Case of Deafening Silences, Canadian Journal of History. Dec 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell.
      Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G. K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that "it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it."
    • James M Lutz Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine , Brenda J Lutz, (2004). Global Terrorism, Routledge: London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
    • Mark Levene Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN   978-1-84511-057-4 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
    • Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B. Tauris: London:

      [The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.

39. Klimeš, Ondřej (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 27–. ISBN   978-90-04-28809-6.
40. MacLeod, Katie (20 September 2016). "The Unsaid of the Grand Dérangement: An Analysis of Outsider and Regional Interpretations of Acadian History". The Graduate History Review. 5 (1). University of Victoria. Archived from the original on 2 September 2018.
41. Jones, Adam (2016). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 108–110. ISBN   978-1-317-53386-3 – via Google Books.
42. Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. pp. 97, 132. ISBN   978-0-8135-6068-7.
43. Michael Mann, The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing, pp. 112–4, Cambridge, 2005 "... figures are derive[d] from McCarthy (1995: I 91, 162–4, 339), who is often viewed as a scholar on the Turkish side of the debate. Yet even if we reduce his figures by 50 percent, they would still horrify. He estimates that between 1812 and 1922 somewhere around 5½ million Muslims were driven out of Europe and 5 million more were killed or died of either disease or starvation while fleeing. ... In the final Balkan Wars of 1912–13 he estimates that 62 percent of all Muslims (27 percent dead, 35 percent refugees) disappeared from the lands conquered by Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria. This was murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe, ..."
44. Mihcael, Radu. Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations, p. 78
45. "Remembering the Circassian Deportations and Massacres". TCA. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013.
46. Messenger, Evan (6 December 2023). "The Circassian Genocide: The Forgotten Tragedy of the First Modern Genocide". American University: Journal of International Service. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023.
47. Ahmed, Akbar (2013). The Thistle and the Drone. Washington, D.C., USA: Brookings Institution Press. p. 357. ISBN   978-0-8157-2378-3. In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands.
48. Messenger, Evan (6 December 2023). "The Circassian Genocide: The Forgotten Tragedy of the First Modern Genocide". American University: Journal of International Service. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023.
49. Robert E. Greenwood (2007). Outsourcing Culture: How American Culture has Changed From "We the People" Into a One World Government. Outskirts Press. p. 97.
50. Rajiv Molhotra (2009). "American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the American Frontiers". In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth (ed.). The Challenge of Eurocentrism. Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 180, 184, 189, 199.
51. Paul Finkelman; Donald R. Kennon (2008). Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism. Ohio University Press. pp. 15, 141, 254.
52. Ben Kiernan (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press. pp. 328, 330.
53. The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830–1875. University of Oklahoma Press. 2005. p. 9. ISBN   978-0-8061-3698-1 . Retrieved 23 October 2010.
54. Anderson, Gary C. Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime that Should Haunt America. The University of Oklahoma Press. Oklahoma City, 2014.
55. Lee, Lloyd ed. Navajo Sovereignty. Understandings and visions of the Diné People. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 2017.
56. Lohr, Eric (2003). Nationalizing the Russian Empire. Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN   9780674010413.
57. Jagodić, Miloš (1998). "The Emigration of Muslims from the New Serbian Regions 1877/1878" . Balkanologie. 2 (2). para. 15. doi:10.4000/balkanologie.265. S2CID   140637086.
58. Stojanović, Dubravka (2010). Ulje na vodi: Ogledi iz istorije sadašnjosti Srbije (PDF). Peščanik. p. 264. ISBN   978-86-86391-19-3.
59. Blumi, Isa (2013). Ottoman refugees, 1878–1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World. London: A&C Black. p. 50. ISBN   9781472515384. As these Niš refugees waited for acknowledgment from locals, they took measures to ensure that they were properly accommodated by often confiscating food stored in towns. They also simply appropriated lands and began to build shelter on them. A number of cases also point to banditry in the form of livestock raiding and 'illegal' hunting in communal forests, all parts of refugees' repertoire ... At this early stage of the crisis, such actions overwhelmed the Ottoman state, with the institution least capable of addressing these issues being the newly created Muhacirin Müdüriyeti ... Ignored in the scholarship, these acts of survival by desperate refugees constituted a serious threat to the established Kosovar communities. The leaders of these communities thus spent considerable efforts lobbying the Sultan to do something about the refugees. While these Niš muhacirs would in some ways integrate into the larger regional context, as evidenced later, they, and a number of other Albanian-speaking refugees streaming in for the next 20 years from Montenegro and Serbia, constituted a strong opposition block to the Sultan's rule."; p.53. "One can observe that in strategically important areas, the new Serbian state purposefully left the old Ottoman laws intact. More important, when the state wished to enforce its authority, officials felt it necessary to seek the assistance of those with some experience, using the old Ottoman administrative codes to assist judges make rulings. There still remained, however, the problem of the region being largely depopulated as a consequence of the wars... Belgrade needed these people, mostly the landowners of the productive farmlands surrounding these towns, back. In subsequent attempts to lure these economically vital people back, while paying lip-service to the nationalist calls for 'purification', Belgrade officials adopted a compromise position that satisfied both economic rationalists who argued that Serbia needed these people and those who wanted to separate 'Albanians' from 'Serbs'. Instead of returning to their 'mixed' villages and towns of the previous Ottoman era, these 'Albanians', 'Pomaks', and 'Turks' were encouraged to move into concentrated clusters of villages in Masurica, and Gornja Jablanica that the Serbian state set up for them. For this 'repatriation' to work, however, authorities needed the cooperation of local leaders to help persuade members of their community who were refugees in Ottoman territories to 'return'. In this regard, the collaboration between Shahid Pasha and the Serbian regime stands out. An Albanian who commanded the Sofia barracks during the war, Shahid Pasha negotiated directly with the future king of Serbia, Prince Milan Obrenović, to secure the safety of those returnees who would settle in the many villages of Gornja Jablanica. To help facilitate such collaborative ventures, laws were needed that would guarantee the safety of these communities likely to be targeted by the rising nationalist elements infiltrating the Serbian army at the time. Indeed, throughout the 1880s, efforts were made to regulate the interaction between exiled Muslim landowners and those local and newly immigrant farmers working their lands. Furthermore, laws passed in early 1880 began a process of managing the resettlement of the region that accommodated those refugees who came from Austrian-controlled Herzegovina and from Bulgaria. Cooperation, in other words, was the preferred form of exchange within the borderland, not violent confrontation.
60. Turović, Dobrosav (2002). Gornja Jablanica, Kroz istoriju. Belgrade: Zavičajno udruženje. pp. 87–89. ISBN   9788675270188.
61. Uka, Sabit (2004). Gjurmë mbi shqiptarët e Sanxhakut të Nishit deri më 1912 [Traces on Albanians of the Sanjak of Nish up to 1912] (in Albanian). Prishtina: Verana. p. 155. ISBN   9789951864527.
62. "Në kohët e sotme fshatra të Jabllanicës, të banuara kryesisht me shqiptare, janë këto: Tupalla, Kapiti, Gërbavci, Sfirca, Llapashtica e Epërrne. Ndërkaq, fshatra me popullsi te përzier me shqiptar, malazezë dhe serbë, jane këto: Stara Banja, Ramabanja, Banja e Sjarinës, Gjylekreshta (Gjylekari), Sijarina dhe qendra komunale Medvegja. Dy familje shqiptare ndeshen edhe në Iagjen e Marovicës, e quajtur Sinanovë, si dhe disa familje në vetë qendrën e Leskovcit. Vllasa është zyrtarisht lagje e fshatit Gërbavc, Dediqi, është lagje e Medvegjes dhe Dukati, lagje e Sijarinës. Në popull konsiderohen edhe si vendbanime të veçanta. Kështu qendron gjendja demografike e trevës në fjalë, përndryshe para Luftës se Dytë Botërore Sijarina dhe Gjylekari ishin fshatra me populisi të perzier, bile në këtë te fundit ishin shumë familje serbe, kurse tani shumicën e përbëjnë shqiptarët. [In contemporary times, villages in the Jablanica area, inhabited mainly by Albanians, are these: Tupale, Kapiti, Grbavce, Svirca, Gornje Lapaštica. Meanwhile, the mixed villages populated by Albanians, Montenegrins and Serbs, are these: Stara Banja, Ravna Banja, Sjarinska Banja, Đulekrešta (Đulekari) Sijarina and the municipal center Medveđa. Two Albanian families are also encountered in the neighborhood of Marovica called Sinanovo, and some families in the center of Leskovac. Vllasa is formally a neighborhood of the village Grbavce, Dedići is a neighborhood of Medveđa and Dukati, a neighborhood of Sijarina. So this is the demographic situation in question that remains, somewhat different before World War II as Sijarina and Đulekari were villages with mixed populations, even in this latter settlement were many Serb families, and now the majority is made up of Albanians.]^{[ citation needed ]}
63. Kamusella, Tomasz. The Dynamics of the Policies of Ethnic Cleansing in Silesia in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Archived 24 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
64. Steinmetz, George (Winter 2005). "The First Genocide of the 20th Century and its Postcolonial Afterlives: Germany and the Namibian Ovaherero". Journal of the International Institute. 12 (2).
65. Dr Jürgen Zimmerer and Prof. Benyamin Neuberger. "HERERO AND NAMA GENOCIDE". The Combat Genocide Association.
66. "Herero Revolt 1904–1907". South African History Online. March 2011.
67. Staff Reporter (March 1998). "Herero genocide – the facts and the criticisms". Mail & Guardian – Africa's Best Read.
68. Emran Qureshi, Michael A. Sells. The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy, p. 180
69. Downes. Targeting Civilians in War. Cornell University Press.
70. Lieberman, Benjamin (16 December 2013). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 75, 61. ISBN   9781442230385.
71. Mozjes, Paul. Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. p. 34, 35
72. Elchinova, Magdalena (30 May 2016). Stark, Laura (ed.). "Memory, Heritage and Ethnicity: Constructing Identity among the Istanbul-based Orthodox Bulgarians". Ethnologia Europaea. 46 (1). Museum Tusculanum Press: 99–113. doi: 10.16995/ee.1180 . ISBN   9788763544870.
73. Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945. p. 146.
74. Ther, Philipp; Kreutzmüller, Charlotte (6 August 2023). The Dark Side of Nation-States. Berghahn Books. p. 61. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qd3ng. ISBN   9781782383024. JSTOR   j.ctt9qd3ng.
75. Knight, Robert. Ethnicity, Nationalism and the European Cold War, p. 96
76. Akcam, Taner (22 November 2017). "The Anatomy of Religious Cleansing: Non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire (1914—1918)". The Future of Religious Minorities in the Middle East. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN   978-1-4985-6197-6.
77. Bjørnlund, Matthias (2008). "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 41–58. doi:10.1080/14623520701850286. S2CID   72975930.
78. Gerwarth, Robert; Home, John, eds. (2013). War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe After the Great War. Oxford University Press. p. 50. ISBN   9780199686056.
79. Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 43. ISBN   9781442206632.
80. "Armenia: The Survival of A Nation" by Christopher J. Walker, Croom Helm (Publisher) London 1980, pp. 200–203
81. The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden by Viscount Bryce, James Bryce and Arnold Toynbee, Uncensored Edition. Ara Sarafian (ed.) Princeton, New Jersey: Gomidas Institute, 2000. ISBN   0-9535191-5-5, pp. 635–649
82. Der Matossian, Bedross (28 July 2017). "Venturing into the Minefield: Turkish Liberal Historiography and the Armenian Genocide". The Armenian Genocide. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315131016. ISBN   978-1-315-13101-6.
83. Suny, Ronald Grigor (2009). "Truth in Telling: Reconciling Realities in the Genocide of the Ottoman Armenians". The American Historical Review. 114 (4): 930–946. doi: 10.1086/ahr.114.4.930 .
84. Kort, Michael (2001). The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath, p. 133. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN   0-7656-0396-9.
85. Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union. Harvard University Press. p.  footnote 29. ISBN   0-674-02178-9. The footnote ends with a reference: Holquist, Peter (1997). "Conduct Merciless, Mass Terror Decossackization on the Don, 1919". Cahiers du Monde Russe: Russie, Empire Russe, Union Soviétique, États Indépendants. 38 (38): 127–162. doi:10.3406/cmr.1997.2486.
86. Rama, Shinasi (2019). Nation Failure, Ethnic Elites, and Balance of Power: The International Administration of Kosova. Springer. p. 107. ISBN   978-3030051921 . Retrieved 27 March 2020.
87. Demolli, Haki (2002). Terrorizmi. Prishtina: Law Faculty Prishtina. based on the national secret files, in the period 1918-40 around 80,000 Albanians were exterminated, between 1944 and 1950, 49,000 Albanians were killed by the communist Yugoslav forces, and in the period 1981-97, 221 Albanians were killed by the Serbian police and military forces. During these periods hundred of thousands of Albanians have been forcibly displaced towards Turkey and Western European countries.
88. Gingeras, Ryan (26 February 2009). Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1912–1923. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-160979-4. Most of the Christian irregulars were involved in the ethnic cleansing of the Gemlik–Yalova–İzmit region.
89. Sassounian, Harut (28 June 2009). "Turkish Prime Minister Admits Ethnic Cleansing". Huffington Post.
90. Geniki Statistiki Ypiresia tis Ellados (Statistical Annual of Greece), Statistia apotelesmata tis apografis sou plithysmou tis Ellados tis 15–16 Maiou 1928, pg.41. Athens: National Printing Office, 1930. Quoted in Kontogiorgi, Elisabeth (2006-08-17). Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Forced Settlement of Refugees 1922–1930. Oxford University Press. pp. 96, footnote 56. ISBN   978-0-19-927896-1.
91. Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109. ISBN   9780321095879.
92. Lahtinen, Anja (December 2010). "Governance Matters – China's Developing Western Region With A Focus On Qinghai Province" (PDF). HELDA – Digital Repository of the University of Helsinki.
93. Uradyn Erden Bulag (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 273. ISBN   0-7425-1144-8 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
94. Chung-kuo fu li hui, Zhongguo fu li hui (1961). China reconstructs, Volume 10. China Welfare Institute. p. 16. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
95. David S. G. Goodman (2004). China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives. Cambridge University Press. p. 204. ISBN   0-521-61349-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
96. Shail Mayaram (2009). The other global city. Taylor & Francis US. p. 76. ISBN   978-0-415-99194-0 . Retrieved 30 July 2010.
97. Shail Mayaram (2009). The other global city. Taylor & Francis US. p. 77. ISBN   978-0-415-99194-0 . Retrieved 30 July 2010.
98. Gratton, Brian; Merchant, Emily (December 2013). "Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950" (PDF). Vol. 47, no. 4. The International migration review. pp. 944–975.
99. Hoffman, Abraham (1 January 1974). Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929–1939. VNR AG. ISBN   9780816503667.
100. Balderrama, Francisco E.; Rodriguez, Raymond (1 January 2006). Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. UNM Press. ISBN   9780826339737.
101. Johnson, Kevin R. (2005). "The Forgotten Repatriation of Persons of Mexican Ancestry and Lessons for the War on Terror". Pace Law Review. 26: 1. doi: 10.58948/2331-3528.1147 . S2CID   140417518.
102. Benjamen, Alda (2022). Assyrians in Modern Iraq: Negotiating Political and Cultural Space. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN   978-1-108-83879-5.
103. Kim, Alexander (2012). "The Repression of Soviet Koreans during the 1930s". The Historian. 74 (2): 267–285. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2012.00319.x. JSTOR   24455386. S2CID   142660020.
104. "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945".
105. "The Holocaust in Romania".
106. "The Holocaust in Hungary: Frequently Asked Questions". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
107. "Bulgaria".
108. "Project InPosterum: Poland WWII Casualties".
109. "Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder".
110. Hayden, Robert M. (1996). "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers". Slavic Review. 55 (4): 727–748. doi:10.2307/2501233. JSTOR   2501233. S2CID   232725375.
111. Korb, Alexander (2010). "Nation-Building and Mass Violence: The Independent State of Croatia, 1941–45". In Friedman, Jonathan C. (ed.). The Routledge History of the Holocaust. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203837443. ISBN   978-0-203-83744-3.
112. Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941-1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN   9780822977933. Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.
113. "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75-80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.
114. Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human losses of Croats in World War II and the immediate post-war period caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partizans (People's Liberation Army and the partizan detachment of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Yugoslav Communist authoritities. Numerical indicators". Review of Croatian History. VIII (1): 77–121.
115. Žerjavić, Vladimir (1995). "Demografski i ratni gubici Hrvatske u Drugom svjetskom ratu i poraću" [Demographic and War Losses of Croatia in the World War Two and in the Postwar Period]. Journal of Contemporary History (in Croatian). 27 (3). Zagreb, Croatia: 543–559.
116. Human Rights Watch (1991). "Punished Peoples" of the Soviet Union: The Continuing Legacy of Stalin's Deportations" (PDF). New York.
117. Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1159. doi:10.1080/0966813022000017177. JSTOR   826310. S2CID   43510161. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2018.
118. Baltsiotis, Lambros (2011). "The Muslim Chams of Northwestern Greece. The grounds for the expulsion of a 'non-existent' minority community". European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey (in French) (12). doi: 10.4000/ejts.4444 . ISSN   1773-0546. see sections 65, 67, and 79
119. Glassheim, E. (2000). "National Mythologies and Ethnic Cleansing: The Expulsion of Czechoslovak Germans in 1945" . Central European History. 33 (4): 463–486. doi:10.1163/156916100746428. S2CID   145302399 . Retrieved 24 November 2023.
120. Kertesz, S. (1953). "The Expulsion of the Germans from Hungary: A Study in Postwar Diplomacy" . The Review of Politics. 1 (2): 179–208. doi:10.1017/S0034670500008093. S2CID   146766801 . Retrieved 24 November 2023.
121. Münz, Rainer; Ohliger, Rainer, eds. (2003). Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: German, Israel, and Post-Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective. Routledge Studies in Nationalism and Ethnicity Series (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. ISBN   0714652326.
122. "Human Rights For Minorities In Central Europe: Ethnic Cleansing In Post World War II Czechoslovakia: The Presidential Decrees Of Edvard Beneš, 1945-1948". Archived from the original on 23 April 2009.
123. Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (August 2009). The Partition of India. New Approaches to Asian History. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521856614 . Retrieved 24 November 2023.
124. Ahmed, Ishtiaq (March 2002). "The 1947 Partition of India: A Paradigm for Pathological Politics in India and Pakistan". Asian Ethnicity. 3 (1): 9–28. doi:10.1080/14631360120095847. S2CID   145811519. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
125. Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006). A Concise History of India (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 222. ISBN   978-0521682251. The outcome, akin to what today is called 'ethnic cleansing', produced an Indian Punjab 60 per cent Hindu and 35 per cent Sikh, while the Pakistan Punjab became almost wholly Muslim.
126. "Il Giorno del Ricordo" (in Italian). 10 February 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
127. "L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte" (in Italian). 5 February 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
128. Pamela Ballinger (7 April 2009). Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation. Duke University Press. p. 295. ISBN   978-0822392361 . Retrieved 30 December 2015.
129. Tesser, L. (14 May 2013). Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union – Page 136, Lynn Tesser. Springer. ISBN   9781137308771.
130. Ballinger, Pamela (2003). History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans. Princeton University Press. p. 103. ISBN   0691086974.
131. Anna C. Bramwell, University of Oxford, UK (1988). Refugees in the Age of Total War. Unwin Hyman. pp. 139, 143. ISBN   9780044451945.
132. Matjaž Klemenčič, The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia. See "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
133. Ota Konrád; Boris Barth; Jaromír Mrňka, eds. (2021). Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48. Springer International Publishing. p. 20. ISBN   9783030783860.
134. Bloxham, Donald; Dirk Moses, Anthony (2011). "Genocide and ethnic cleansing". In Bloxham, Donald; Gerwarth, Robert (eds.). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004. ISBN   9781107005037.
135. Silvia Ferreto Clementi. "La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic" (in Italian). Retrieved 15 February 2015.
136. «....Già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una "pulizia etnica". Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò - nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe - una delle barbarie del secolo scorso.» from the official website of The Presidency of the Italian Republic, Giorgio Napolitano, official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo" Quirinal, Rome, 10 February 2007.
137. "Il giorno del Ricordo - Croce Rossa Italiana" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
138. Noorani, A. G. (13 September 2018). "Why Jammu erupts?". Frontline.^{[ permanent dead link ]}
139. "The killing fields of Jammu: How Muslims became minority in the region". Scroll.in. 10 July 2016.
140. "The Nakba did not start or end in 1948". Al Jazeera. 13 May 2017.
141. • Rashed, Haifa; Short, Damien; Docker, John (2014). "Nakba Memoricide: Genocide Studies and the Zionist/Israeli Genocide of Palestine" . Holy Land Studies. 13 (1): 1–23. doi:10.3366/hls.2014.0076. ISSN   1474-9475.
     • Lentin, Ronit (2010). Co-memory and melancholia (1st ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN   9780719081705.
     • Auron, Yair (4 October 2017). The Holocaust, Rebirth, and the Nakba: Memory and Contemporary Israeli–Arab Relations. Lexington Books. ISBN   978-1498559492 . Retrieved 12 November 2023.
     • Bashir, Bashir; Goldberg, Amos (2018). "The Historical Global Register: The Holocaust and the Colonial Framework". The Holocaust and the Nakba - A New Grammar of Trauma and History. Columbia University Press. pp. 20–21, 138. ISBN   9780231182973.
142. Pappé, Ilan (2006). "The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine". Journal of Palestine Studies. 36 (1): 6–20. doi:10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6. hdl: 10871/15208 . ISSN   0377-919X. JSTOR   10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6. S2CID   155363162.
143. Morris, Benny (10 October 2016). "Israel Conducted No Ethnic Cleansing in 1948". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2023. I don't accept the definition 'ethnic cleansing' for what the Jews in prestate Israel did in 1948. (If you consider Lod and Ramle, maybe we can talk about partial ethnic cleansing.)
144. "Survival of the Fittest (Cont.)". Haaretz . 7 January 2004. Archived from the original on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
145. Ivanov, Ivo; Önsoy, Murat. "From Integration to Assimilation and Forced Migration: An Evaluation of the Bulgarian Communist Party's Turkish Minority Policy". Bilig (103).
146. "From "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity" series of Human Rights Watch" Archived 7 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine Human Rights Watch, 2 July 2006.
147. https://www.hsje.org/Egypt/the_plight_of_%20jews_in_egypt.pdf American Jewish Committee. March 1957.
148. Maldonado, Pablo Jairo Tutillo (27 March 2019). "How should we remember the forced migration of Jews from Egypt?". UW Stroum Center for Jewish Studies. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
149. "The Jews driven out of homes in Arab lands". The Jewish Chronicle . Retrieved 22 October 2021.
150. "Jewish Refugees from the Middle East and North Africa – Wednesday 19 June 2019 – Hansard – UK Parliament". hansard.parliament.uk. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
151. Trueman, Chris N. (26 May 2015). "The United Nations and the Congo". The History Learning Site. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
152. Smith, Martin (1991). Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London, New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 43–44, 98, 56–57, 176. ISBN   0-86232-868-3.
153. Mukhopadhyay, Kali Prasad (2007). Partition, Bengal and After: The Great Tragedy of India. New Delhi: Reference Press. p. 45. ISBN   978-81-8405-034-9.
154. Ray, Jayanta Kumar (September 1968). Democracy and Nationalism on Trial (First ed.). Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study. p. 216.
155. Lahiry, Pravash Chandra (1964). India Partitioned And Minorities in Pakistan. Writer's Forum. pp. 54–55.
156. "Annual Report of the Ministry of External Affairs for 1962–63". Ministry of External Affairs, India. p. 20. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
157. "Bloodbath Against Non-Muslims in Undivided Bengal – The Story That Needs to Be Told". 24 December 2019.
158. Roy, Tathagata (2001). My People, Uprooted: A Saga of the Hindus of Eastern Bengal. Kolkata: Ratna Prakashan. pp. 220–221. ISBN   81-85709-67-X.
159. Bhattacharyya, S.K. (1987). Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh. Houston: A. Ghosh. p. 105. ISBN   0-9611614-3-4.
160. "none". The Daily Ittefaq. Dhaka. 18 January 1964.
161. Masalha, N. (2003). The Politics of Denial: Israel and the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Pluto Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt18dztmq
162. Monaghan, Paul (23 April 2016). "Britain's shame: the ethnic cleansing of the Chagos Islands". Politicsfirst.org.uk. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
163. Taylor, Ollie (15 July 2017). "The ethnic cleansing of the Chagos Islands". Medium.com. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
164. Gunter, Michael (15 November 2014). Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-1-84904-531-5.
165. McDowall, David (2021). "21: Living apart in French and Independent Syria". A Modern History of the Kurds (4th ed.). 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland: I.B. Tauris. p. 471. ISBN   978-0-7556-0079-3.
166. Tejel, Jordi (2009). Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society. Routledge. pp. 61–62. ISBN   9780203892114.
167. David L. Phillips (2017). The Kurdish Spring: A New Map of the Middle East. Routledge. ISBN   9781351480369 . Retrieved 25 November 2019.
168. Tejel, Jordi (2009). Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society. Routledge. pp. 61–62. ISBN   9780203892114.
169. Ahmed, Akbar (2013). "4: Musharraf's Dilemma". The Thistle and the Drone. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 187. ISBN   978-0-8157-2378-3.
170. McDowall, David (2021). "21: Living apart in French and Independent Syria". A Modern History of the Kurds (4th ed.). 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland: I.B. Tauris. pp. 470, 471. ISBN   978-0-7556-0079-3.
171. Oeter, Stefan (2014). "Recognition and Non-Recognition with Regard to Secession". In Walter, Christian; von Ungern-Sternberg, Antje; Abushov, Kavus (eds.). Self-determination and Secession in International Law. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN   978-0-19-870237-5. The Turkish army engaged in an exercise of 'ethnic cleansing' and expulsed more or less all Greek Cypriots from the North with brute force.
172. Ó Cathaoir, Brendan (20 July 2004). "Invasion 30 years ago still scars Cyprus". Irish Times. The occupied area was ethnically cleansed of its Greek Cypriot population: about 142,000 people – 23 per cent of the island's population – were driven from their homes and became refugees in their own country.
173. "'Ethnic cleansing', Cypriot style". The New York Times. 5 September 1992. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
174. Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. "WGIP: Side event on the Hmong Lao, at the United Nations" . Retrieved 20 April 2011.
175. Jane Hamilton-Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942–1992 (Indiana University Press, 1999), pp337-460
176. Forced Back and Forgotten (Lawyers' Committee for Human Rights, 1989), p8.
177. "Cambodia – Population". Library of Congress Country Studies.
178. Cambodia – the Chinese. Library of Congress Country Studies.
179. "Moshahida Sultana Ritu (12 July 2012). "Ethnic Cleansing in Myanmar". The New York Times.
180. Peter Ford (12 June 2012). "Why deadly race riots could rattle Myanmar's fledgling reforms". The Christian Science Monitor.
181. Kamusella, Tomasz. 2018. Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War: The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria (Ser: Routledge Studies in Modern European History). London: Routledge. ISBN   9781138480520.
182. "Bulgaria MPs Move to Declare Revival Process as Ethnic Cleansing – Novinite.com – Sofia News Agency". www.novinite.com.
183. "Парламентът осъжда възродителния процес - Actualno.com". Archived from the original on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2015. Парламентът осъжда възродителния процес
184. Pentikäinen, Oskari; Trier, Tom. "BETWEEN INTEGRATION AND RESETTLEMENT: THE MESKHETIAN TURKS" (PDF). European Centre for Minority Issues: 12.
185. "Forced displacement in the Nagorny Karabakh conflict: return and its alternatives" (PDF). Conciliation Resources. August 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
186. De Waal, Black Garden, p. 285
187. Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld – Chronology for Lhotshampas in Bhutan".
188. "Refugees warn of Bhutan's new tide of ethnic expulsions". The Guardian . 20 April 2008
189. Gokhman, M. "Карабахская война" [The Karabakh War]. Russkaya Misl. 29 November 1991.
190. Доклад Правозащитного центра общества "Мемориал" Нарушения прав человека в ходе проведения операций внутренними войсками МВД СССР, советской армией и МВД Азербайджана в ряде районов Азербайджанской Республики в период с конца апреля по начало июня 1991 года
191. Report by Professor Richard Wilson Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine "On the Visit to the Armenian-Azerbaijani Border, May 25–29, 1991" Presented to the First International Sakharov Conference on Physics, Lebedev Institute, Moscow on 31 May 1991.
192. Melkonian. My Brother's Road, p. 186.
193. Dummett, Mark (29 September 2007). "Burmese exiles in desperate conditions". BBC News. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
194. Rosen, Steven J. (2012). "Kuwait Expels Thousands of Palestinians". Middle East Quarterly. From March to September 1991, about 200,000 Palestinians were expelled from the emirate in a systematic campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure while another 200,000 who fled during the Iraqi occupation were denied return.
195. Le Troquer, Yann; Al-Oudat, Rozenn Hommery (1999). "From Kuwait to Jordan: The Palestinians' Third Exodus". Journal of Palestine Studies. 28 (3): 37–51. doi:10.2307/2538306. JSTOR   2538306.
196. Helsinki Watch / Human Rights Watch (May 1996)."Russia. The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region".
197. Helsinki Watch / Human Rights Watch (April 1996). Russia: The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region. ISBN   1-56432-165-7
198. Simons, Marlise (10 October 2001). "Milosevic, Indicted Again, Is Charged With Crimes in Croatia". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
199. "Milosevic: Important New Charges on Croatia". Human Rights Watch. 21 October 2001. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
200. "Croatia and Serbia Sue Each Other for Genocide Text". 3 March 2014.
201. Naegele, Jolyon (21 February 2003). "Serbia: Witnesses Recall Ethnic Cleansing As Seselj Prepares For Hague Surrender". Radio Free Europe. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
202. "UN tribunal upholds 35-year jail term for leader of breakaway Croatian Serb state". UN News. 8 October 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
203. "Convicted Croatian Serb ex-leader commits suicide before he was to testify at UN court". UN News. 6 March 2006. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
204. "Appeals Chamber Reverses Šešelj's Acquittal, in part, and Convicts him of Crimes Against Humanity". United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
205. "Serbia: Conviction of war criminal delivers long overdue justice to victims". Amnesty International. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
206. "UN commends Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia, as final judgement is delivered". UN News. 31 May 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
207. "STANIŠIĆ and SIMATOVIĆ (MICT-15-96-A)". The Hague: International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. 31 May 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
208. Isayev, Ismayil; Abilov, Shamkhal (December 2016). "The Consequences of the Nagorno–Karabakh War for Azerbaijan and the Undeniable Reality of Khojaly Massacre: A View from Azerbaijan". Polish Political Science Yearbook. 45: 291–303. doi: 10.15804/ppsy2016022 (inactive 12 July 2025).
209. Hakobyan, Tatul (February 1992). "Khojaly: The Moment of Truth" (PDF). Armenian Cause Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2018 – via arfd.am.
210. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan Department for Analysis and Strategic Studies (February 2017). "Khojaly Genocide: 25 Years of Injustice and Impunity" (PDF).
211. Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, The Ethnic Cleansing of Bosnia-Hercegovina (US Government Printing Office, 1992)
212. "Bosnia: Dayton Accords". The New York Times.
213. Wren, Christopher S. (24 November 1995). "Resettling Refugees: U.N. Facing New Burden". The New York Times.
214. Barber, Tony; Marshall, Andrew (21 September 1994). "Serbs expelled almost 800,000 Muslims". The Independent. London. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
215. "ICTY: Naletilic and Martinovic (IT-98-34-PT)" (PDF).
216. "UN tribunal transfers former Bosnian Serb leader to UK prison". UN News. 8 September 2009. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
217. "Bosnian Serb politician convicted by UN tribunal to serve jail term in Denmark". UN News. 4 March 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
218. "Former high-ranking Bosnian Serbs receive sentences for war crimes from UN tribunal". UN News. 27 March 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
219. "UN tribunal sentences former Bosnian Serb president to 11 years". UN News. 27 February 2003. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
220. "UN hails conviction of Mladic, the 'epitome of evil', a momentous victory for justice". UN News. 22 November 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
221. Barnett, Michael (2015). Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda (Afterword ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 1, 15, 131–132. ISBN   978-0-8014-3883-7.
222. Reydams, Luc (2020). "'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide". Review of African Political Economy. 48 (168): 235–256. doi: 10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320 . S2CID   225356374. The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.
223. Guichaoua, André (2 January 2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections" . Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 125–141. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329. ISSN   1462-3528. S2CID   213471539. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
224. McGreal, Chris (29 March 2004). "'It's so difficult to live with what we know'". The Guardian. ISSN   1756-3224.
225. White, Kenneth R. (2009). "Scourge of Racism: Genocide in Rwanda". Journal of Black Studies. 39 (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 471–481. ISSN   0021-9347. JSTOR   40282573 . Retrieved 18 July 2025.
226. "the path of a genocide" (PDF). Retrieved 18 July 2025.
227. Prunier, Gérard (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide (1st ed.). London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 247. ISBN   978-1850652434.
228. Nowrojee, Binaifer (1996). Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN   978-1-56432-208-1. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
229. Sullivan, Ronald (7 April 1994). "Juvenal Habyarimana, 57, Ruled Rwanda for 21 Years". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
230. Leutloff-Grandits, Carolin (2006). Claiming Ownership in Postwar Croatia: The Dynamics of Property Relations and Ethnic Conflict in the Knin Region. Münster, Germany: LIT. p. 119. ISBN   978-3-8258-8049-1.
231. Bonner, Raymond (21 March 1999). "War Crimes Panel Finds Croat Troops 'Cleansed' the Serbs". The New York Times.
232. Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 156. ISBN   978-1-44220-663-2. ... by 1995 the Croat army had driven out the Serb forces and population from ... Krajina (Operation Oluja [Storm]) ... This was the single largest ethnic cleansing of the wars of the 1990s.
233. Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas Allan (2013). Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative. Purdue University Press. p. 129. ISBN   978-1-55753-617-4.
234. Hoare, Marko Attila (2010). "The War of Yugoslav Succession". In Ramet, Sabrina P. (ed.). Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 111–136. ISBN   978-1-139-48750-4.
235. Hoare, Marko Attila (19 November 2012). "Vindication or travesty ? Operation Storm's Ante Gotovina and Mladen Markac acquitted". Greatersurbiton.wordpress.com. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
236. "Judgement Summary for Gotovina et al" (PDF). International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. 15 April 2011.
237. Borger, Julian (16 November 2012). "War crimes convictions of two Croatian generals overturned". The Guardian.
238. "Gotovina and Markac, IT-06-90-A" (PDF). International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. 16 November 2012. pp. 30–34.
239. "Five Senior Serb Officials Convicted of Kosovo Crimes, One Acquitted". International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. 26 February 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
240. "Šainović et al., Case Information Sheet" (PDF). International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
241. Bugajski, Janusz (2002). Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era. New York: The Center for Strategic and International Studies. p. 479. ISBN   1-56324-676-7.
242. "Kosovo/Serbia: Protect Minorities from Ethnic Violence". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
243. "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the New Kosovo". Human Rights Watch
244. Bookman, Milica Zarkovic (1997), The Demographic Struggle for Power, (p. 131), Frank Cass (UK), ISBN   0-7146-4732-2
245. "Offer To Resettle Bhutan Refugees". Voice of America. 18 October 2006. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022.
246. Pereira, Melvil; Kashyap, Furzee (16 June 2023). "Land as Foundation of Identity: The Case of the Brus in Mizoram". In Das, Amiya Kumar; Kikhi, Kedilezo; Dutta, Piyashi (eds.). Indigeneity, Citizenship and the State: Perspectives from India's Northeast. New York: Routeledge. ISBN   9781003406259 . Retrieved 19 July 2025.
247. Bhattacharya, Udayon (2011). "Ramifications of Conflicts in Tripura and Mizoram". In Hazarika, Sanjoy; Raghavan, V.R. (eds.). Conflicts in the Northeast: Internal and External Effects. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
248. "Anti-Chinese riots continue in Indonesia". CNN, 29 August 1998
249. "Wages of Hatred". BusinessWeek, 9 October 2000. Archived 2001-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
250. Murphy, Dan (1 March 2001). "Behind Ethnic War". Christian Science Monitor– via Global Policy Forum.
251. Claude Cahn (2007). "Birth of a Nation: Kosovo and the Persecution of Pariah Minorities" (PDF). German Law Journal . 8 (1). ISSN   2071-8322. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2015.
252. "DR Congo pygmies 'exterminated'". BBC News. 6 July 2004.
253. "DR Congo pygmies appeal to UN". BBC News. 23 May 2003.
254. "7.30 Report – 8/9/1999: Ethnic cleansing will empty East Timor if no aid comes: Belo". Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 23 May 2023. Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 9 October 2011. Transcript at East Timor and Indonesia Action Network
255. The New Book of Knowledge (Grolier), volume T, p. 228 (2004)
256. Moore, Charles (29 October 2005). "Bushmen forced out of desert after living off land for thousands of years". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 29 October 2005.
257. "African Bushmen Tour U.S. to Fund Fight for Land". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 16 November 2007.
258. Price, Tom. "Exiles of the Kalahari".
259. "UN condemns Botswana government over Bushman evictions". Survival International.
260. Collins, Robert O. (2005), "Civil Wars and Revolution in the Sudan: Essays on the Sudan, Southern Sudan, and Darfur, 1962–2004", (p. 156), United States: Tsehai, ISBN   0-9748198-7-5.
261. "Arabs pile into Darfur to take land 'cleansed' by janjaweed". Archived from the original on 18 December 2007.
262. "Culture and Cultural Heritage at the Council of Europe – Homepage" (PDF). Culture and Cultural Heritage.
263. "Kosovo Fact Finding Mission – August, 2004" (PDF).
264. Cockburn, Patrick (20 May 2006). "Iraq is disintegrating as ethnic cleansing takes hold". The Independent . Archived from the original on 20 August 2008.
265. Howeid, Amira. "There is ethnic cleansing". Al-Ahram. Archived 12 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
266. Damon, Arwa. "Iraq refugees chased from home, struggle to cope". CNN.
267. Higgins, Alexander G. (3 November 2006). "U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly". Boston Globe .
268. Wong, Edward (30 May 2007). "In North Iraq, Sunni Arabs Drive Out Kurds". The New York Times.
269. "Christians, targeted and suffering, flee Iraq". USA Today.
270. "Terror campaign targets Chaldean church in Iraq". AsiaNews. 10 June 2006.
271. "Iraq". UNHCR. Archived from the original on 29 November 2008.
272. "Christians live in fear of death squads". IRIN. 19 October 2006.
273. Steele, Jonathan (30 November 2006). "While the Pope tries to build bridges in Turkey, the precarious plight of Iraq's Christians gets only worse". The Guardian.
274. "Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction'". BBC News. 4 March 2007.
275. "Yazidis fear annihilation after Iraq bombings". NBC News . 16 August 2007. Archived from the original on 18 August 2007.
276. Ann McFeatters (25 May 2007). "Iraq refugees find no refuge in America". Seattle Post-Intelligencer .
277. "Niger starts mass Arab expulsions". BBC News. 26 October 2006.
278. "Niger's Arabs say expulsions will fuel race hate". AlertNet. Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 November 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
279. "Niger's Arabs to fight expulsion". BBC News. 25 October 2006.
280. "Burma Karen families 'on the run'". BBC News
281. "Human Rights in Burma: Fifteen Years Post Military Coup". Archived 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Refugees International
282. "U.S. envoy calls violence in Kenya 'ethnic cleansing'". USA Today.
283. "Kenya ethnic clashes intensify". Al Jazeera.
284. "U.N.: 600,000 Displaced in Kenya Unrest". CBS News .
285. "Kenya opposition cancels protests". BBC News. 13 November 2017.
286. "Kenya diplomatic push for peace". BBC News. 13 November 2017.
287. "25000 North Indian workers leave Pune". The Indian Express . Archived from the original on 4 June 2008. Retrieved 6 April 2008.
288. "25000 North Indians leave, Pune realty projects hit". The Times of India . 24 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
289. "Maha exodus: 10,000 north Indians flee in fear". The Times of India . 14 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2008.
290. "MNS violence: North Indians flee Nashik, industries hit". Rediff. 13 February 2008. Retrieved 6 April 2008.
291. "Ethnic cleansing: South Africa's shame". The Independent. London. 25 May 2008.
292. "UNHCR secures safe passage for Georgians fearing further fighting". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 15 August 2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016.
293. Mohan, Rohini (2 January 2015). "Sri Lanka's Violent Buddhists". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
294. Anishchuk, Alexei (14 June 2010). "U.N. urges Kyrgyzstan to stamp out ethnic bloodletting". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 August 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
295. Weir, Fred (16 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan riots led to ethnic cleansing; government blames Bakiyev". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
296. Ng, Christina (9 June 2011). "Latino Gang Charged With Racial Cleansing Attacks in California Town". ABC News . Retrieved 7 May 2012.
297. Chulov, Mahmood, Martin, Mona (22 July 2013). "Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to 'ethnically cleanse' Alawite heartland". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021.
298. Nakhoul, Samia (12 June 2012). "Insight: Syria massacres, ethnic cleansing that may backfire". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021.
299. Hamad, Sam (30 June 2017). "Daraa 'de-escalation' masks Assad's ethnic cleansing in Syria". New Arab. Archived from the original on 7 December 2022.
300. El-Bar, Karim (5 September 2016). "'Ethnic cleansing on an unprecedented scale': Rebels, UN criticise Assad tactics". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021.
301. "Syria Refugee Crisis Explained". UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency. 14 March 2023. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023.
302. "Syria Refugee Crisis Explained". UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency. 14 March 2023. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023.
303. "Syria Refugee Crisis". Archived from the original on 18 May 2023.
304. "Burma unrest: UN body says 90,000 displaced by violence". BBC. 20 June 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
305. Harris, Gardiner (28 July 2012). "As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs". The New York Times.
306. Putz, Ulrike (25 July 2012). "Christians Flee from Radical Rebels in Syria". Der Spiegel.
307. McDonnell, Patrick J. (23 March 2012). "Church fears 'ethnic cleansing' of Christians in Homs, Syria". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
308. Shadbolt, Peter (22 April 2013). "Rights group accuses Myanmar of 'ethnic cleansing'". CNN .
309. "USCIRF Commemorates the Ninth Anniversary of the Yazidi Genocide".
310. McKay, Hollie (5 March 2021). "The ISIS War Crime Iraqi Turkmen Won't Talk About".
311. "Turkish PM accuses Russia of 'ethnic cleansing' in Syria". Reuters. 9 December 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
312. "Turkey says Russia is 'ethnically cleansing' Turkmen. Who are they?". Christian Science Monitor. 9 December 2015. ISSN   0882-7729 . Retrieved 11 October 2021.
313. Beauchamp, Zack (24 November 2015). "Syria's Turkmen: who they are, and what they have to do with Russia's downed plane". Vox. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
314. "Turkmens in Bayırbucak face ethnic cleansing after Rabia falls". Daily Sabah. 27 January 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
315. Al Jazeera English (11 September 2017). "UN: Rohingya facing 'ethnic cleansing' in Myanmar" – via YouTube.
316. McPherson, Poppy (8 May 2017). "'We must protect our country': extremist Buddhists target Mandalay's Muslims". The Guardian.
317. Osborne, Samuel (29 August 2017). "Rohingya villages 'burned by Burmese army' in crackdown on Muslim minority". Independent.co.uk .
318. Gramer, Robbie (3 February 2017). "Gruesome New Details on The Ethnic Cleansing in Myanmar No One Is Talking About".
319. "Women, children feared among scores dead in Myanmar village 'massacre'". ABC News. 1 September 2017.
320. Cochrane, Liam (19 July 2017). "Rohingya Muslims tell of gang rapes and secret killings in Myanmar's hidden region". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 7 August 2023.
321. Worley, Will (2 September 2017). "Rohingya children 'beheaded and burned alive' in Burma". The Independent . Retrieved 7 August 2023.
322. MacGregor, Fiona (2 September 2017). "Fears of mass atrocities against Rohingya civilians in Burma". The Daily Telegraph.
323. Wright, Rebecca; Westcott, Ben (4 September 2017). "UV: At least 30,000 Rohingya trapped in Myanmar mountains without food". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
324. Cockburn, Patrick (18 April 2018). "Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin". The Independent. Retrieved 7 August 2023. Other displaced people from Eastern Ghouta are being moved into houses from which their Kurdish inhabitants have fled and are not being allowed to return according to SOHR. It says that refugees from Eastern Ghouta object to what is happening, saying they do not want to settle in Afrin, 'where the Turkish forces provide them with houses owned by people displaced from Afrin'. The Eastern Ghouta refugees say they resent being the instrument of 'an organised demographic change' at the behest of Turkey which would, in effect, replace Kurds with Arabs in Afrin.
325. "After displacing more than 300000 Kurdish residents of Afrin people, Turkish-backed factions seize more than 75% of olive farms and receive the price of the first season in advance". Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 20 September 2018.
326. Marks, Thomas A.; Ucko, David H. (11 March 2021). "Gray zone in red: China revisits the past". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 32 (2): 184–201. doi: 10.1080/09592318.2021.1870422 .
327. "China continues to arrest, imprison Uyghurs despite international backlash: Experts". The Economic Times . ANI. 14 December 2020.
328. Boscia, Stefan (28 March 2021). "Boris Johnson looks to build new global coalition to rival China". City AM .
329. "Chinese doctor says she participated in 'ethnic cleansing' of Uyghurs". The Catholic Herald . Catholic News Agency. 4 September 2020.
330. "Uyghur American Association holds rally in US to raise awareness about Muslim genocide in China". Hindustan Times . 3 October 2020.
331. Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany (10 February 2021). "Norway's youth parties call for end to China free trade talks". Axios . ... [O]pposition to China's Uyghur genocide is gaining momentum in Norway, where some politicians are fearful of jeopardizing ties with Beijing.
332. "Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide". BBC News . 8 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
333. Davidson, Helen (18 September 2020). "Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps". The Guardian . Retrieved 7 August 2023.
334. "One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel". Al Jazeera. 10 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
335. Welch, Dylan; Hui, Echo; Hutcheon, Stephen (24 November 2019). "The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang". Australia: ABC News.
336. Mourenza, Andrés (31 January 2021). "Los exiliados uigures en Turquía temen la larga mano china". El País .
337. Child, David (27 January 2021). "Holocaust Memorial Day: Jewish figures condemn Uighur persecution". Al Jazeera.
338. "Trump signs bill pressuring China over Uighur Muslim crackdown". The Daily Star . Lebanon. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
339. Stroup, David R. (19 November 2019). "Why Xi Jinping's Xinjiang policy is a major change in China's ethnic politics". The Washington Post . Retrieved 24 November 2019.
340. "UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses". Human Rights Watch . 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
341. McNeill, Sophie (14 July 2019). "The Missing: The families torn apart by China's campaign of cultural genocide". ABC News . Australia. It appears to be the largest imprisonment of people on the basis of religion since the Holocaust.
342. Rajagopalan, Megha; Killing, Alison (3 December 2020). "Inside A Xinjiang Detention Camp". BuzzFeed News . Retrieved 7 August 2023.
343. Khatchadourian, Raffi (5 April 2021). "Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang". The New Yorker .
344. "Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Warnings of genocide and famine". BBC News. 28 May 2021.
345. "'Leave no Tigrayan': In Ethiopia, an ethnicity is erased". AP News. 26 April 2021.
346. Tsui, Karina (13 July 2022). "At least 900,000 Ukrainians 'forcibly deported' to Russia, U.S. says". The Washington Post.
347. Kuzio, Taras (29 June 2022). "Vladimir Putin's Ukrainian genocide is proceeding in plain view". Atlantic Council.
348. Clark, Nell (12 April 2022). "An expert says it may be hard, but not impossible, to prove genocide in Ukraine". NPR .
349. "Russia: International Criminal Court issues arrest warrant for Putin". UN News. 17 March 2023.
350. "100,617 forcibly displaced persons have crossed into Armenia from Nagorno-Karabakh". Armenpress. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
351. "More than 80% of Nagorno-Karabakh's population flees as future uncertain for those who remain". The Canadian Press . Yahoo! Finance. 29 September 2023. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
352. "Nagorno-Karabakh: 50,000 people flee to Armenia along 100 miles of winding road after Azerbaijan military offensive". Sky News . Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
353. "Azerbaijani activists end Nagorno-Karabakh sit-in as Baku tightens grip on region". POLITICO. 28 April 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
354. Johnson, Josiah (10 August 2023). "Is Nagorno-Karabakh the New Darfur?". American Enterprise Institute - AEI. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
355. Ochab, Dr Ewelina U. "Lachin Corridor Blockade Starves Nagorno-Karabakh". Forbes. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
356. Ռ/Կ, «Ազատություն» (9 August 2023). "Top International Lawyer Calls Azerbaijani Blockade Of Nagorno-Karabakh Genocide". «Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան (in Armenian). Retrieved 20 January 2024.
357. "Genocide returns to Darfur". The Economist. ISSN   0013-0613. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
358. Factbox: Who are Sudan's Rapid Support Forces? Archived 14 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine , Reuters (15 April 2023).
359. "Sudan's paramilitary RSF accused of 'ethnic cleansing' in West Darfur". Al Jazeera. 9 May 2024.
360. Debre, Isabel. "Israel orders evacuation of 1 million in northern Gaza in 24 hours". PBS News . Archived from the original on 22 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
361. "UN expert warns of new instance of mass ethnic cleansing of Palestinians, calls for immediate ceasefire". UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Archived from the original on 14 October 2023.
362. Levitz, Eric (13 October 2023). "The U.S. Is Giving Israel Permission for War Crimes". The Intelligencer. Archived from the original on 26 October 2023.
363. Levene, Mark (21 January 2024). "Gaza 2023: Words Matter, Lives Matter More". Journal of Genocide Research (Forum: Israel–Palestine: Atrocity Crimes and the Crisis of Holocaust and Genocide Studies): 5. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2301866. eISSN   1469-9494. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2024.

Further reading

• Bibliography of Genocide studies