Russian-occupied territories

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Map showing Russia in dark red with Russian-occupied territories in Europe in light red, as follows: In Moldova: Transnistria (1), since 1992 In Chechnya: (2), since the Second Chechen War in 2000 In Georgia: Abkhazia (3) and South Ossetia (4), since 2008 In Ukraine: Crimea (5) and parts of Luhansk Oblast (6) and Donetsk Oblast (7), since 2014; and parts of Zaporizhzhia Oblast (8) and Kherson Oblast (9), since 2022 Russian-occupied territories in map.webp
Map showing Russia in dark red with Russian-occupied territories in Europe in light red, as follows:

Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has been involved in territorial disputes with a number of other post-Soviet states. These disputes are primarily an aspect of the post-Soviet conflicts, and have led to some countries losing parts of their sovereign territory to what a large portion of the international community designates as a Russian military occupation. As such, these lands are commonly described as Russian-occupied territories, regardless of what their status is in Russian law. The term is applied to Georgia (in Abkhazia and South Ossetia), Moldova (in Transnistria), Ukraine (in Crimea, Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia).

Contents

Additionally, Russia and Japan have been involved in the Kuril Islands dispute due to Russia's 1991 inheritance of control over the four southernmost Kuril Islands, which Japan has claimed ownership of since 1945.

Russian-occupied territories are seen by some as part of contemporary Russian imperialism. [1]

Moldova

Transnistria (1992–present)

Transnistrian forces during the Battle of Bender in June 1992 Bender 1992.jpg
Transnistrian forces during the Battle of Bender in June 1992

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 21 December 1991, many Moldovans all over the former Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic started demanding unification with Romania, [2] that "Moldovan" (which was asked to be referred to as Romanian) be written in the Latin alphabet and not in the Cyrillic one and that it become the only official language of Moldova, which was subsequently approved in March 2023. [3] This was not well received in modern Gagauzia, [4] an ethnically Turkic region in Moldova, and in most of the left bank of the Dniester river. Here, Russian-speakers who formed the majority in the region advocated Russian be kept as the official language of Moldova alongside Moldovan (which was still to be written in Cyrillic and not to be referred to as Romanian), and that Moldova not unify with Romania. Differences erupted into the Transnistria War in 1992, [5] which following the bloody 1992 battle of Bender resulted in victory of the separatists, who had earlier declared the independence of Transnistria, following a Russian military intervention in Transnistria which is still present today in the area and which still defends the Transnistrian regime today despite Moldovan requests to withdraw from what still legally is its internationally recognized land. Following the end of the war, Transnistria has made several requests for becoming a part of Russia. [6] [7] [8]

Chechnya

First and Second War

In 1994, Russia attacked the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria starting the First Chechen War, which ended in a Chechen victory in 1996 and continuation of their independence from Russia.

A soldier standing at a building next to the destroyed Presidential Palace during the Battle of Grozny in 1995. Evstafiev-chechnya-palace-gunman.jpg
A soldier standing at a building next to the destroyed Presidential Palace during the Battle of Grozny in 1995.

Just 3 years later, Russia started another attacked on Chechnya starting the Second Chechen War. Russian forces occupied Grozny and then Chechnya in 2000, but Chechen fighters kept fighting in the mountains and never formally surrendered. In 2007 the Ichkerian government fled to exile under the new president Akhmed Zakayev and in 2009, Russia officially declared the end of the "anti-terror operations", ending the second war.

Recognition of Chechnya

At the time only 2 countries actively recognize the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, being Afghanistan since 2000 and Ukraine since 2022. [9] [10] The first country to ever recognize Chechnya's independence was Georgia in 1992 [11] but since the Russian occupation in 2000, Georgia hasn't been actively recognizing Chechnya, although it never formally lifted the recognition.

Estonia and Azerbaijan also wanted to recognize the independence of Chechnya in the 90's, but at the end Estonia didn't move on with it because of pressure from Russia itself and the European Union and Azerbaijan didn't recognize Chechnya because of the already existing political instability in the country, the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and the later coup d'état in 1993.

Georgia

Map showing Russian political and military influence or interference in Post-Soviet conflicts prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine Geopolitics South Russia2.png
Map showing Russian political and military influence or interference in Post-Soviet conflicts prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Abkhazia and South Ossetia (2008–present)

Russian BMP-2 from the 58th Army in South Ossetia South Ossetia war 58 army.jpg
Russian BMP-2 from the 58th Army in South Ossetia

After the Russo-Georgian War, President Medvedev signed decrees on 26 August 2008 recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as sovereign states. Russia established diplomatic relations with these partially recognised states and placed Russian troops in both. Russian security forces were deployed along the demarcation lines with Georgia.

Many international journalists and media companies, such as Al Jazeera, BBC and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, as well as non-governmental organizations, have referred to Abkhazia and South Ossetia as Russian-occupied territories. [12] [13] [14] [15]

The Georgian parliament unanimously passed a resolution on 28 August 2008 formally declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia as Russian-occupied territories and Russian troops as occupying forces. The law forbids entry into the regions from Russia and subjects violators to a fine or imprisonment. [16] Abkhazia may only be entered from Zugdidi Municipality, via the Enguri Bridge. South Ossetia, however, does not allow entry of foreigners from Georgian-controlled territory. [17] The crossing points into South Ossetia have been effectively closed for locals as well since September 2019, [18] while a special permit regime is in place by South Ossetian de facto authorities for two crossing points: Akhalgori - Odzisi (Mtskheta Municipality) and Karzmani (Sachkhere Municipality). [19]

In April 2010, the Georgian parliament's foreign affairs committee asked the legislative bodies of 31 countries to declare Abkhazia and South Ossetia as territories under Russian occupation and to recognize the massive displacement of civilians from those regions by Russia as amounting to ethnic cleansing. [20] The Russian Foreign Ministry retaliated, asking Georgia to abolish the law. [21] Meanwhile, the United Nations General Assembly annually condemned the forced demographic changes taking place in both regions as result of the displacement and the refusal of the right of return of Internally displaced persons (in practical terms, ethnic Georgians). In 2022 95 UN members supported the resolution, with 12 against and 56 abstentions. [22] It noted in a 2022 report, acknowledged with the same resolution, the Russian enforcement of the de facto border which violates "freedom of movement" principles. [23]

South Ossetia has also discussed several times a possible annexation of the state by Russia.

Ukraine

Crimea, parts of Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts (2014–present)

Russian president Vladimir Putin signing the treaty of the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation with Crimean leaders. Putin with Vladimir Konstantinov, Sergey Aksyonov and Alexey Chaly 4.jpeg
Russian president Vladimir Putin signing the treaty of the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation with Crimean leaders.

After the Russian military invasion that resulted in Ukrainian control over the Crimean peninsula and parts of the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts being lost, the situation regarding the Crimean peninsula is more complex since Russia annexed the territory in March 2014 and now administers it as two federal subjects - the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory, supported by most foreign governments and United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262, [24] although Russia and some other UN member states recognize Crimea as part of the Russian Federation or have expressed support for the 2014 Crimean status referendum.

In 2015, the Ukrainian parliament officially set 20 February 2014 as the date of "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia", [25] [26] with 7% of Ukraine's territory under occupation. [27]

Invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)

Regions of Ukraine annexed by Russia in 2014 and 2022, with a red line marking the area of actual control by Russia on 30 September 2022. Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine.svg
Regions of Ukraine annexed by Russia in 2014 and 2022, with a red line marking the area of actual control by Russia on 30 September 2022.

In February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine after recognizing the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic as independent states. Russian president Putin ordered Russian forces to "perform peacekeeping functions" [28] in Ukraine on 22 February, and then to begin a "special military operation" on 24 February, making it illegal to refer to the biggest European conflict since WWII as a "war" in Russia. As of October 2022, Russia occupies parts of Donetsk Oblast, Kharkiv Oblast, Kherson Oblast, Luhansk Oblast, Mykolaiv Oblast, Zaporizhzhia Oblast, and all of the Crimean peninsula with its armed forces, its mercenary groups like Wagner, Chechen Kadyrovites, and Russian-led separatists of the DPR and LPR.

In September, the Ukrainian army recaptured almost all of Kharkiv Oblast.

Russia held annexation referendums in occupied territories of Ukraine from 23 September to 27 September. On 30 September, Putin signed treaties with the Russian-appointed heads of the DPR, LPR, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia regions to be integrated into Russia, [29] and their annexation was approved by the Russian constitutional court and ratified by the Russian Federation Council, although the newly claimed borders of the Russian Federation are yet to be determined. [30]

Kuril Islands

Disputed islands in question: Habomai Islands, Shikotan, Kunashiri (Kunashir) and Etorofu (Iturup). Kuril-Islands-Northern-Territories-of-Japan-Map.png
Disputed islands in question: Habomai Islands, Shikotan, Kunashiri (Kunashir) and Etorofu (Iturup).

The Kuril Islands dispute is a territorial dispute between Japan and the Russian Federation over the ownership of the four southernmost Kuril Islands. The four disputed islands, like other islands in the Kuril chain that are not in dispute, were annexed by the Soviet Union following the Kuril Islands landing operation at the end of World War II (WWII). The disputed islands are under Russian administration as the South Kuril District of the Sakhalin Oblast (Сахалинская область, Sakhalinskaya oblast). They are claimed by Japan, which refers to them as its Northern Territories or Southern Chishima, and considers them part of the Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaido Prefecture.

Japan and the US maintain that until a WWII peace treaty between Japan and Russia is concluded, the disputed Northern Territories remain occupied territory under Russian control via General Order No. 1. [31] The European Parliament, in the resolution "Relations between EU, the Chinese Republic and the People's Republic and Security in the Far East", adopted on July 7, 2005, called on Russia to return to Japan the "occupied" South Kuril Islands. [32] Ukraine, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, also recognizes the four southern-most Kuril islands as Japanese territory occupied by Russia. [33]

Russia maintains that all the Kuril Islands, including those that Japan calls the Northern Territories, are legally a part of Russia as a result of World War II, and the acquisition was as proper as any other change of international boundaries following the war. [34] [35]

See also

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References

  1. ↑ Oksamytna, Kseniya. "Imperialism, supremacy, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine." Contemporary Security Policy 44.4 (2023): 497-512.
  2. ↑ "Moldova: record-breaking support for reunification with Romania". Centre for Eastern Studies (OSW). 19 April 2021.
  3. ↑ "Moldova's Parliament Approves Turbulent First Reading Of Romanian Language Bill". Radio Free Europe. 3 March 2023.
  4. ↑ "Pro-Russian pressure increases on Moldova, using disinformation and provocations". Le Monde. 9 May 2022.
  5. ↑ Ursu, Valentina (1 March 2020). "Oazu Nantoi: "Conflictul nu este intern. Pacificatorii ruși au menirea de a nu admite rezolvarea acestui conflict"". Radio Europa Liberă Moldova (in Romanian).
  6. ↑ "Transnistria announced plans to become part of Russia: how Moldova and Russia reacted". The Odessa Journal . 22 July 2022.
  7. ↑ "Moldova's Trans-Dniester region pleads to join Russia". BBC. 18 March 2014.
  8. ↑ "The value of a frozen conflict". Le Monde.
  9. ↑ Post, Kyiv (19 October 2022). "Ukrainian Parliament Recognizes Independence of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria". Kyiv Post. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  10. ↑ "THE TALIBAN FORMALLY RECOGNIZES CHECHNYA". Jamestown. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  11. ↑ "უკრაინის უმაღლესმა რადამ იჩქერიის სუვერენიტეტი აღიარა | Rustavi2". rustavi2.ge (in Georgian). Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  12. ↑ "Hopeful Georgia takes baby steps towards EU". Al Jazeera. 30 November 2013.
  13. ↑ "Biden Says U.S. Will Not Recognize Abkhazia, South Ossetia". RFE/RL. 2 February 2013.
  14. ↑ Ariela Shapiro (13 July 2013). "Normalized Georgia-Russia Relations May Contradict Georgia's Territorial Integrity". CACI Analyst.
  15. ↑ "Is Russia going to war with Ukraine and other questions". BBC News. 13 April 2021.
  16. ↑ "Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory". Civil Georgia. 28 August 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  17. ↑ "Entry procedures for foreign citizens arriving to the Republic of South Ossetia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of South Ossetia. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  18. ↑ "EU Calls for Reopening Tskhinvali Crossing Points". Civil Georgia. 6 September 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  19. ↑ "Tskhinvali to Continue Issuing Passage Permits for Odzisi, Karzmani Crossing Points". Civil Georgia. 9 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  20. ↑ Letter by Georgian Parliamentary Committee for Foreign Relations. Civil Georgia. 8 April 2010.
  21. ↑ "Russia Urges Georgia to Scrap Occupied Territories Law". RIA Novosti. 5 June 2013.
  22. ↑ "Protracted Conflicts in GUAM Area". United Nations. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  23. ↑ "Report of the Secretary-General - Status of internally displaced persons and refugees from Abkhazia, Georgia, and the Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia, Georgia" (PDF). United Nations. 9 May 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  24. ↑ "Kremlin: Crimea and Sevastopol are now part of Russia, not Ukraine". CNN. 18 March 2014.
  25. ↑ (in Ukrainian) "Nasha" Poklonsky promises to the "Berkut" fighters to punish the participants of the Maidan, Segodnya (20 March 2016)
  26. ↑ "Thoughts on the Russian-occupied territories". 8 May 2020.
  27. ↑ "Speakers Urge Peaceful Settlement to Conflict in Ukraine, Underline Support for Sovereignty, Territorial Integrity of Crimea, Donbas Region". United Nations. 20 February 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
  28. ↑ "Putin orders Russian forces to "perform peacekeeping functions" in eastern Ukraine's breakaway regions". Reuters. 22 February 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  29. ↑ "Ukraine war latest: Putin declares four areas of Ukraine as Russian". BBC News. 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  30. ↑ "Russia's Federation Council ratifies annexation of four Ukrainian regions". Reuters. 4 October 2022. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
  31. ↑ Bruce A. Elleman, Michael R. Nichols and Matthew J. Ouimet, A Historical Reevaluation of America's Role in the Kuril Islands Dispute, Pacific Affairs, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1998–1999), pp. 489–504
  32. ↑ Official Journal of the European Union , C 157 E/471, 6 July 2006 P. 471 - 473
  33. ↑ "Zelenskyy signs decree recognizing southern Kuril Islands as Japanese territories occupied by Russia" . Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  34. ↑ О проблеме мирного договора в российско-японских отношениях [On the problem of a peace treaty in Russian-Japanese relations] (in Russian). Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 July 2005. Archived from the original on 21 June 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
  35. ↑ "Russia's Militarization of the Kuril Islands". CSIS.
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