Turkish occupation of northern Syria

Last updated
Turkish occupation of northern Syria
Flag of Syria 2011, observed.svg
Flag of Turkey.svg
The Syrian Independence flag and the Turkish flag; both are widely used in the zone. [1] [2] [3] [4]
Turkish Northern Syria 4.svg
Syrian opposition map November 2024.svg
   Operation Euphrates Shield (2016) area
   Operation Olive Branch (2018) area
   Operation Peace Spring (2019) area
   Interim Government
   Syrian Salvation Government
Capital Azaz [5]
Official languages
Government Provisional government (Syrian Interim Government) (dual authority of decentralized local councils and military administration)
• President
Hadi al-Bahra
• Prime Minister
Abdurrahman Mustafa
• Minister of Defence
Salim Idris
Self-governance (Syrian Interim Government) under military occupation
24 August 2016
20 January 2018
9 October 2019
Area
• Total
8,835 [7] [8] [9]  km2 (3,411 sq mi)
Currency Syrian pound, Turkish lira, [2] United States dollar

The Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army have occupied [10] [11] areas of northern Syria since August 2016, during the Syrian civil war. Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with the Syrian opposition, in practice they constitute a separate proto-state [12] under the dual authority of decentralized native local councils and Turkish military administration.

Contents

Turkish-controlled areas of Syria comprise a 8,835-square-kilometre area encompassing over 1,000 settlements, including towns such as al-Bab, Azaz, Jarabulus, Rajo, Tal Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. The majority of these settlements had been captured from the Islamic State (IS) and the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) groups, both of which have been designated as terrorist organisations by the Turkish government, though the SDF is not seen this way by most of the international community, notably including the United States and European Union. Some towns, including Azaz, were also under the control of the Syrian opposition before Turkish intervention. The Syrian Interim Government moved into the Turkish-controlled territories and began to extend partial authority there, including providing documents to Syrian citizens. These areas are referred to as "safe zones" by Turkish authorities. [13] The occupation has allegedly led to human rights abuses in some areas, including ethnic cleansing. [14] [15] [16] [17]

Background

Turkey's proposals for its "Safe Zone"

Situation in 2014. Turkey proposed to establish a safe zone in Syria between Kobane (pink) and Afrin (light blue) for several years. Rojava february2014 2.png
Situation in 2014. Turkey proposed to establish a safe zone in Syria between Kobane (pink) and Afrin (light blue) for several years.

Turkey and the Syrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone, that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011. [18] However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans. [19] [20] After the 2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq, Turkey and United States negotiated a 'safe zone', while US accepted 'ISIL-free zone', US officials were reluctant to accept a no fly zone. [21] [22]

European comments

After the attacks of ISIL in Syria, tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey. In the beginning of 2015, refugees began to cross the Greece–Turkey border, escaping to European countries in large numbers. The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria. [23] In February 2016, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel said, "In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks – that is to say, a kind of no-fly zone". [24]

U.S.-Turkish negotiations

The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments, primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first. While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritised the war against ISIL. The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.[ citation needed ]

Turkish soldiers and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD-led government of Afrin Region, 18 March 2018 Turkish Army Captured Afrin 01.jpg
Turkish soldiers and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD-led government of Afrin Region, 18 March 2018

The outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government. [25]

Turkey designates the Kurdish YPG to be a threat, due to its strong ties with the PKK. On the other hand, the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation, the YPG is a distinct actor, constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL. [26]

Another debate was about the name of the safe zone. While Turkey called the zone a 'safe zone from ISIS, the Syrian regime and YPG,' the US, however, declared that they will only accept an 'ISIS-free zone'. [27]

Turkish military offensives

Third offensive

On March 30, 2018, Turkey's president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria's "Ayn al-Arab" (Kobane), Ras al-Ain, Tell Abyad and Al-Hasakah regions from militants (referring to the mainly Kurdish YPG forces) up to the Iraqi border, adding that it would also clear militants from Iraq (this time referring to the Kurdish terrorist organisation, PKK). [28]

On October 7, 2019, the President Trump ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syria–Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by President Trump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community. [29] [30] The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF); [29] however Turkey attacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region. [31]

Idlib offensive

A cross-border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern Syria [32] in response to the Balyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen. [33] [34] Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow. [35]

Possible fourth offensive

In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ. [36] [37] The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement. [38] The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on August 8, 2022. [39] [ needs update ]

Geography

The territory of the Turkish-occupied region is located within the northern areas of Aleppo, Raqqa and Hasakah governorates. On 26 February 2018, the territory connected with the mostly rebel-held Idlib Governorate. [40]

The Syrian National Army captured an area of 2,225 square kilometres during Operation Euphrates Shield. [41] Areas captured during the operation included villages between Azaz and al-Rai, such as Kafr Kalbin; Kafrah; Sawran; Ihtaimlat; Dabiq; Turkman Bareh; Kafr Elward; Ghoz; Ghaytun; Akhtarin; Baruza; Tall Tanah; Kaljibrin; Qebbet al-Turkmen; Ghandoura; Arab Hassan Sabghir; Mahsenli; Qabasin and Halwanji. Following Operation Olive Branch, Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entire Afrin District. [42] In addition to its administrative centre Afrin, the district includes settlements such as Bulbul, Maabatli, Rajo, Jindires, Sharran and Shaykh al-Hadid. According to the 2004 Syrian census, the district had a population of 172,095 before the war. [43]

During Operation Peace Spring, Turkish Armed Forces and its allies captured a total area of between 3,412 square kilometres (1,317 sq mi) [44] and 4,220 square kilometres (1,630 sq mi), [45] and 68 settlements, including Ras al-Ayn, Tell Abyad, Suluk, Mabrouka and Manajir and cut the M4 highway. [46] [47] [48] SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation. [49]

There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces during their offensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone, which includes settlements such as Manbij and Arima. [50] [51]

Demographics

Northern Syria, including the Turkish-controlled region, has historically been ethnically highly diverse, inhabited predominately by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Yazidis, and Circassians. [52] [53] As of 2020, Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish-controlled areas. [54] Before the Turkish occupation, the al-Bab area had an Arab majority, while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority. [54] [55] [56] Tell Abyad was mostly Arab, [57] while Ras al-Ayn was dominated by Kurds. [58] However, all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war, making accurate demographic estimates difficult. [55] [59] Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention. [54] [59]

The population of the Turkish-dominated territories is generally Muslim, with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion. [54] There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish-occupied areas: A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin, while Christians (mostly Syrian Armenians and Assyrians) lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal. [60] [61]

Ethnic cleansing and kidnapping of women

After the Turkish-led forces had captured Afrin District (Afrin Canton) in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fighters [62] and refugees from southern Syria [63] into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals. [64] The previous owners, most of them Kurds or Yazidis, were often prevented from returning to Afrin. [62] [63] Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish-backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies, most SNA units fully supported them. [63] Refugees from Eastern Ghouta, Damascus, said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority. [62] More than 200,000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018, [65] while 458,000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention. [66]

A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, [67] submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43/28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council (commencing 14 September 2020), the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population, and especially Kurdish civilian population, by the Turkish state and "non-state factions" such as the Syrian National Army, acting as de facto agents of Turkey. In paragraph 47, the Report addresses looting and property appropriation, noting that "[t]hroughout the Afrin region, multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner. For example, in September 2019, civilians in the Shaykh al-Hadid subdistrict (of the Afrin region) described how members of Division 14, Brigade 142 (the Suleiman Shah Brigade) of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin."

It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018, either for ransom, rape, forced marriage, or because of perceived links to the Democratic Union Party. [68] [69] It was alleged that many of them were later killed. [70] [71] This activity has been interpreted as part of an Islamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, [70] as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and other Kurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018. [72] [73]

Population centres

This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region.

Mosque in Azaz Mosque in A'zaz.jpg
Mosque in Azaz
English name Arabic name Kurdish name Turkish name
Azaz أعزاز (ʾAʿzāz)–Azez
Afrin عفرين (Ifrīn)EfrînAfrin
Jarabulus جرابلس (Jarābulus, Jrāblos)CerablûsCerablus
Akhtarin أخترين (Akhtarīn)–Aktarin
Tell Abyad تل أبيض (Tall Abyaḍ)Girê SpîTel Abyad
al-Bab الباب (al-Bāb)–El-Bab
Ras al-Ayn رأس العين (Raʾs al-ʿAyn)Serê KaniyêResulayn
Sawran صوران (Ṣawrān)–Soran
Bizaah بزاعة (B'zaah)–Bizza
Qabasin قباسين (Qabbāsīn)QebasînBaşköy
Marea مارع (Māriʿ, Mēreʿ)–Mare

Politics and administration

The occupation zone is formally governed by the Syrian Interim Government, an alternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz. [5] Despite this, the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey. [74] [75] These councils operate as a "Turkish-European style government". [4] In general, Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region's government, [76] and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area. [4] [77] Turkish officials mostly act as advisors, allowing the councils to run the day-to-day government and collect their own taxes. [4] Overall, Turkey is in the process of forming a proto-state in northern Syria, [12] and regional expert Joshua Landis has said that the country "is prepared to, in a sense, quasi-annex this region" to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government. [1] Turkish Minister of the Interior Süleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is "part of the Turkish homeland" per the Misak-ı Millî of 1920. [77]

Since the start of its intervention in Syria, Turkey has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control (pictured: devastated neighborhood of al-Bab) and restore civil society. Bataille d'al-Bab 22 fevrier 2017 (1).jpg
Since the start of its intervention in Syria, Turkey has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control (pictured: devastated neighborhood of al-Bab) and restore civil society.

Since the establishment of the occupation zone, the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their control [78] and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey. [6] [2] [79] As part of these efforts, towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians. [78] However, some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone; for example, Hamza Division commander Sayf Balud serves as de facto military governor of al-Bab since 2017. [80]

Turkey also funds education and health services, supports the region's economy, and has trained a new police force. [2] [79] It has constructed a new hospital in al-Bab. [4] Some locals describe these developments as "Turkification" of the region. However, many locals have accepted or even welcomed this, as they said that the area is better off economically, politically, and socially under a Turkish protectorate. [1] [4] The White Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area. [81] For Turkish officials, restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a "justice of fraternity" stemming from Ottoman times, as one deputy governor explained. [4] The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area. [82]

Local government

Following the conquest of Afrin District, civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area. [74] A temporary council was organised by the Turkish-backed Syrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018, to oversee aid, education and media in the area. [83] It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April. [84] [85] The latter council, appointed by city elders, included eleven Kurds, eight Arabs and one Turkmen. While Zuheyr Haydar, a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council, stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return, this has yet to take place. PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an "occupying force". [86]

On 19 April 2018, a local council was appointed in Jindires. [87] During Operation Peace Spring, similar appointed councils were established in Tell Abyad [88] and Ras al-Ayn. [89] Turkish-backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names, and insist that Christian and other minority women wear an Islamic veil before being issued documents. [90] An August 2020 US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for "arbitrary detentions, extra-judicial killings, seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties" and "the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians". [91]

Military

Fighters of the Syrian National Army in 2016 Bataille d'al-Bab 22 fevrier 2017 (3).jpg
Fighters of the Syrian National Army in 2016

On 30 May 2017, [92] the Syrian National Army (SNA) composed of primarily Syrian Turkmen as well as Syrian Arabs rebels operating in northern Syria was formed, mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation. [93] The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria and to establish a National Army, which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military intervention [94] and answer to the Syrian Interim Government. [78]

By August 2018, the SNA was stated to be an "organized military bloc" that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels. Military colleges had been set up, and training as well as discipline had been improved. [79] Though clashes and inter-unit violence still happened, [75] [12] [4] they were no longer as serious as in the past. A military court had been established in al-Bab, a military police was organized to oversee discipline, [79] [12] and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups. Nevertheless, most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree, with the Interim Government having little actual control over them. To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny, Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent-minded and disloyal among them. [12] The FSA units in the zone have accepted the Istanbul-based "Syrian Islamic Council" as religious authority. [78] SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government, though the falling value of Turkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid-2018. One fighter said that "when the Turkish lira began to lose value against the Syrian pound our salaries became worthless". [2]

Turkish and U.S. soldiers conduct the joint patrol outside Manbij, 1 November 2018 Combined Joint U.S., Turkey Patrols.jpg
Turkish and U.S. soldiers conduct the joint patrol outside Manbij, 1 November 2018

By July 2018, the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) have built "at least" six military bases in the zone, "raising concerns that [the TAF] may be settling in for a long-term presence in northern Syria". [76]

Toponymic Turkification

After the establishment of Turkish control in the region, a number of streets, squares and villages have been renamed. Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad, Kutana and the city of Ra'i, which are officially called Selçuk obası, Zafer obası and Çobanbey. The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name Erdoğan Square. Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font. [95]

Law enforcement

Turkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017, the "Free Police" which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces. The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers. [96] It is trained, equipped, and paid by Turkish authorities, [96] and consequently loyal to the Turkish state. [97] [98]

The National Police, headed by Maj. Gen. Abdul Razzaq Aslan, is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces. Most of the police members are trained in the Turkish National Police Academy. [79] To maintain security in Afrin District, Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta. [99]

In addition, Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria's judicial code, while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors. A special "terrorism court" was established in Azaz, while a correction facility was organized in al-Bab. [4]

Economy

By July 2018, Turkey was playing an "increasingly prominent—and contentious—role in the region's local economy." [76] It invested heavily in the zone, providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy. Turkish-led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams, electricity and roads. [79] Turkish private companies, such as PTT, [6] Türk Telekom, the Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association, and ET Energy launched projects in the area, as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen. [79] One problematic result of Turkey's economic influence was that the country's currency and debt crisis has also affected the zone, as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018, harming the local economy. [2] [79]

Tourism

As result of the Turkish-led invasion, Afrin's tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point, collapsed. After open combat between the SDF and pro-Turkish forces had mostly concluded, Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism. It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD-led administration, and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return. By July 2018, these measures began to have an effect, with some visitors coming to Afrin's popular recreational areas, such as Maydanki Lake. [100]

Education

Turkey has taken "full control over the educational process" in the zone, [79] and funds all education services. [2] Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey. [4] Several schools have been restored or newly built, with their curricula partially adjusted to education in Turkey: Though the curricula of the Syrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis, certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history, for example replacing "Ottoman occupation" with "Ottoman rule". [79] Turkish is taught as foreign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey. [6] [1] [79]

Reactions to the occupation

Reactions within Syria

The Syrian government under Bashar al-Assad has criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal. [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106]

SDF-controlled territory (green) and Turkish-controlled territory (red) in October 2019 Claimed and de facto territory of Rojava.png
SDF-controlled territory (green) and Turkish-controlled territory (red) in October 2019

Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed, but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives. The Syrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region. [107] Other Opposition groups, such as Syria's Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention. [108]

International reaction

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afrin, Syria</span> City in Syria

Afrin is a Kurdish majority city in northern Syria. In the Afrin District, it is part of the Aleppo Governorate. The total population of the district as of 2020 was recorded at 172,095 people, of whom 70,000 lived in the town of Afrin itself.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afrin District</span> District in Aleppo, Syria

Afrin District is a district of Aleppo Governorate in northern Syria. The administrative centre is the city of Afrin. At the 2004 census, the district had a population of 172,095. Syria's Afrin District fell under the control of the People's Protection Units (YPG) around 2012 and an "Afrin Canton" was declared in 2014, followed by an "Afrin Region" in 2017. During Operation Olive Branch, the entire district was captured by Turkey and its allies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic Union Party (Syria)</span> Kurdish political party

The Democratic Union Party is a Kurdish left-wing political party established on 20 September 2003 in northern Syria. It is a founding member of the National Coordination Body for Democratic Change. It is the leading political party among Syrian Kurds. The PYD was established as a Syrian branch of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) in 2003, and both organizations are still closely affiliated through the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</span> De facto autonomous region in Syria

The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), also known as Rojava, is a de facto autonomous region in northeastern Syria. It consists of self-governing sub-regions in the areas of Jazira, Euphrates, Raqqa, Tabqa, and Deir Ez-Zor. The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing Rojava conflict and the wider Syrian civil war, in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afrin Region</span> De facto region in Aleppo

Afrin Region was the westernmost of the three original regions of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's Protection Units</span> Ethnic Kurdish military unit

The Women's Protection Units or Women's Defense Units is an all-female militia involved in the Syrian civil war. The YPJ is part of the Syrian Democratic Forces, the armed forces of Rojava, and is closely affiliated with the male-led YPG. While the YPJ is mainly made up of Kurds, it also includes women from other ethnic groups in Northern Syria.

Hêvî Îbrahîm Mustefa is the Democratic Union Party (PYD) prime minister of the Afrin Region, a de facto autonomous region of the Democratic Federation of North and East Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Descendants of Saladin Brigade</span> Free Syrian Army Unit

The Descendants of Saladin Brigade was a Free Syrian Army group active in the northern Aleppo Governorate. The group was supported by Turkey and was initially funded and armed by the United States, mainly fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant but also opposing the Syrian government and the Democratic Union Party's (PYD) affiliates such as the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). The brigade was largely disbanded by the Turkish Army in 2017, following disagreements over the participation in a planned Turkish-led offensive against Afrin Canton, although a small faction within the group remained active and participated in the offensive since January 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manbij Military Council</span>

The Manbij Military Council (MMC) is a coalition established by several groups in the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), primarily the Northern Sun Battalion, on 2 April 2016 at the Tishrin Dam on the Euphrates. The MMC led the SDF's Manbij offensive from June 2016 that led to the capture of the city of Manbij from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant two months later. Most fighters in the MMC are from Manbij and the surrounding areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shahba Canton</span> Canton in Aleppo, Syria

The Shahba Canton was a political unit of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, in the Aleppo Governorate. The canton was established to administer the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant west of the Euphrates, as part of the Afrin Region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sultan Murad Division</span> Participant in the Syrian Civil War and the Libyan Civil War (2014-present)

The Sultan Murad Division is a Syrian Turkmen rebel group fighting in the Syrian Civil War. It is aligned with the Syrian Interim Government and heavily supported by Turkey, who provides funding and military training along with artillery and aerial support. It is the most notable group among Syrian Turkmen Brigades also supported by Turkey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrian Democratic Forces military councils</span> Military councils for local security and defense

The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) has many military councils for local security and defense, each being accountable to the civil council of the area they operate in.

Safe zones, de-escalation zones or no-fly zones have been proposed or created at various points during the Syrian civil war which began in 2011, including "de-escalation zones" agreed between the Turkish and Russian powers backing various belligerent parties and no-fly zones proposed in the Kurdish Northeast and rebel Northwest of the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrian National Army</span> Coalition of armed Syrian opposition groups

The Syrian National Army, also known as the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army (TFSA), is a coalition of armed Syrian opposition groups that participates in the Syrian civil war. Comprising various rebel factions that emerged at the start of the war in July 2011, it was officially established in 2017 under the auspices of Turkey, which provides funding, training, and military support.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Olive Branch</span> Turkish offensive against the SDF in Afrin

Operation Olive Branch was an invasion of Syria conducted by the Turkish Armed Forces and Syrian National Army (SNA) in the majority-Kurdish Afrin District of northwest Syria, against the People's Protection Units (YPG) of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). The air war and use of major artillery ended as the Arab and Turkmen militias of the SNA entered the city of Afrin on 18 March 2018, and the SDF insurgency in Northern Aleppo began.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afrin offensive (January–March 2018)</span> Military operation launched by the Turkish Armed Forces and the Free Syrian Army

The Afrin offensive was a military operation launched by the Turkish Armed Forces and the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army against the Syrian Democratic Forces in Afrin District in northwestern Syria as the initial phase of Operation Olive Branch. At the end of military operations, the UN had registered 150,000 Kurdish refugees in camps in the area of Tel Rifaat; the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) estimated that 300,000 people had been expelled in total. By May, SOHR estimated that 40,000 settlers had been moved into Afrin, some of them Arabs displaced from eastern Ghouta, but mostly families of the mixed Arab and Syrian Turkmen militias.

Tajammu Ahrar al-Sharqiya, commonly referred to as Ahrar al-Sharqiya, is an active armed Syrian rebel group founded in 2016 by individuals exiled and displaced mostly from the Deir ez-Zor Governorate and other eastern provinces, such as the Hasakah Governorate, by ISIL, YPG and the Syrian government due to fighting that took place there between 2011 and 2014. Many fighters in Ahrar al-Sharqiya are former al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham members.

The SDF insurgency in northern Syria was a campaign of armed attacks carried out by the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), following the expansion of the Turkish occupation of northern Syria after the early 2018 Operation Olive Branch carried out by the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) and the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army (TFSA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Syria Buffer Zone</span> Demilitarized zone in Syria

The Northern Syria Buffer Zone was a temporary Syrian civil war demilitarized zone (DMZ) established on the Syrian side of the Syria–Turkey border in August 2019 to maintain security along the border and to dissuade a prospective Turkish invasion of the self-proclaimed Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. The DMZ was administered by the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and their military councils and enforced by United States Armed Forces and Turkish Armed Forces personnel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria</span> Turkish military offensive in northern Syria

The 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, code-named Operation Peace Spring by Turkey, was a cross-border military operation conducted by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) and the Syrian National Army (SNA) against the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and later Syrian Arab Army (SAA) in northern Syria.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Madeline Edwards (6 August 2018). "As Syria's proxies converge on Idlib, what's next for Turkey's northern state-within-a-state?". SYRIA:direct and Konrad Adenauer Foundation . Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Khalil Ashawi (28 August 2018). "Falling lira hits Syrian enclave backed by Turkey". Reuters . Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  3. ↑ ANF (29 March 2019). "ID cards of civilians replaced with Turkish ID cards in Afrin". Ajansa Nûçeyan a Firatê. ANF News. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sarah El Deeb (19 June 2018). "Blurring the border, Turkey deepens roots in northern Syria". AP News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  5. 1 2 "Turkey's Idlib Incursion and the HTS Question: Understanding the Long Game in Syria". War on the Rocks. October 31, 2017. Archived from the original on June 4, 2019. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Sydow, Christoph (14 October 2017). "Syrien: Willkommen in der türkischen Besatzungszone" [Syria: Welcome to the Turkish occupation zone]. Spiegel Online . Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  7. ↑ "30 يوما من نبع السلام: "قسد" تخسر نصف مساحة سيطرتها تقريبا.. وروسيا و"النظام" لاعب جديد في الشمال السوري.. وانتهاكات الفصائل التركية تجبر المدنيين على الفرار.. وأكثر من 870 شهيداً وقتيلاً.. وأوضاع إنسانية وصحية كارثية تهدد المنطقة". 9 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  8. ↑ "Fırat Kalkanı Harekatının 216 günlük bilançosu". 30 March 2017. Archived from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  9. ↑ "Bozdağ: Türkiye'nin Afrin de işi bitmemiştir - Politika haberleri". 26 March 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  10. ↑ Sirwan Kajjo (2 March 2017). "Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria". Voice of America . Archived from the original on 13 April 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras said.
  11. ↑ Robert Fisk (29 March 2017). "In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand". The Independent . Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017. You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Haid Haid (2 November 2018). "Turkey's Gradual Efforts to Professionalize Syrian Allies". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  13. ↑ "Safe zone 'crucial for Turkmen in Syria'". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 2019-10-07. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  14. ↑ Rudaw (2020-04-20). "Afrin, Syria: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 Turkish invasion". genocidewatch. Archived from the original on 2021-11-04. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  15. ↑ "NYT accused of whitewashing Turkey's Afrin occupation". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Archived from the original on 2021-11-04. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  16. ↑ "'Nothing is ours anymore': Kurds forced out of Afrin after Turkish assault". the Guardian. 2018-06-07. Archived from the original on 2021-11-05. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  17. ↑ Iddon, Paul (2020-03-19). "Turkey's actions in Syria's Afrin amount to ethnic cleansing - Kurdish analysts". Ahval. Archived from the original on 2021-11-04. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  18. ↑ "Suriyeli muhalifler Antalya'da buluşuyor". CNN Türk. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  19. ↑ "Turkey PM 'will support' Syria no-fly zone". Archived from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  20. ↑ "Syrian opposition calls for no-fly zone". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  21. ↑ Tisdall, Simon (27 July 2015). "Syrian safe zone: US relents to Turkish demands after border crisis grows". TheGuardian.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  22. ↑ "DIPLOMACY - US and Turkey agree to forge 'ISIL-free zone' in Syria, official confirms". 29 July 2015. Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  23. ↑ "Solution to refugee crisis is to end Syria's civil war, UN official says". The Globe and Mail . Archived from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  24. ↑ Wintour, Patrick (16 February 2016). "Turkey revives plan for safe zone in Syria to stem flow of refugees". TheGuardian.com . Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  25. ↑ "National Security Zone". Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  26. ↑ "Fight against IS helps PKK gain global legitimacy - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". 16 September 2014. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  27. ↑ "U.S. denies reaching agreement with Turkey on Syria 'safe zone'". Reuters. 11 August 2015. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  28. ↑ "Turkey Started Preparations for Further Operations in Northern Syria: Erdoğan, New York Times, March 30th, 2018". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2018-03-31. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  29. 1 2 "US begins troop withdrawal from northeastern Syria ahead of Turkish offensive". Deutsche Welle. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2021-07-30. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  30. ↑ Barnes, Julian E.; Schmitt, Eric (2019-10-13). "Trump Orders Withdrawal of U.S. Troops From Northern Syria". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  31. ↑ "Turkey unleashes airstrikes against Kurds in north-east Syria". the Guardian. 2019-10-09. Archived from the original on 2019-10-09. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  32. ↑ "Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against regime aggression in Syria". Istanbul: Daily Sabah. 2020-03-01. Archived from the original on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  33. ↑ Amberin Zaman (2020-03-01). "Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against Syrian forces". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 2021-03-13. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  34. ↑ Joe Truzman (2020-03-05). "Turkey's Operation "Spring Shield" delivers blow to Hezbollah". Longwarjournal.org. Archived from the original on 2022-05-30. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  35. ↑ "Rusya'dan İdlib açıklaması: Ateşkes düzenlemesine genel olarak uyuluyor" (in Turkish). Ankara: Milliyet. 2020-03-12. Archived from the original on 2022-06-07. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  36. ↑ "Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal". Middle East Monitor. 2022-06-05. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  37. ↑ "Syria: US-backed SDF 'open' to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  38. ↑ Agencies (2022-06-07). "Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2022-06-07. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  39. ↑ "President Erdoğan reiterates determination for Syria operation - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 8 August 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-08-08. Retrieved 2022-08-09.
  40. ↑ "Turkey reconnects opposition-held areas in northern Syria - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 February 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-09-19. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  41. ↑ "El Bâb kontrol altına alınmıştır". Al Jazeera Turk - Ortadoğu, Kafkasya, Balkanlar, Türkiye ve çevresindeki bölgeden son dakika haberleri ve analizler. 3 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2018-10-09. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  42. ↑ "Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin region, reports say". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 2019-10-14. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  43. ↑ "General Census of Population and Housing 2004" (PDF) (in Arabic). Syrian Central Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015. Also available in English: "2004 Census Data". UN OCHA. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
  44. ↑ "The Turkish forces and the factions advance and take control of about 10 villages in Abu Rasin area (Zarkan) amid the continuation of fierce clashes against the regime forces and tens of casualties and wounded in the ranks of both parties". 29 October 2019. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  45. ↑ "YPG/PKK terror group as dangerous as Daesh: Erdogan". Archived from the original on 2019-10-26. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  46. ↑ "8 days of Operation "Peace Spring": Turkey controls 68 areas, "Ras al-Ain" under siege, and 416 dead among the SDF, Turkish forces and Turkish-backed factions". 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  47. ↑ "القوات التركية والفصائل تحاصر مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) بشكل كامل، ولا صحة لسيطرة "النظام السوري" على سجون قوات سوريا الديمقراطية ضمن المناطق التي انتشرت بها". SOHR (in Arabic). 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  48. ↑ "قوات سوريا الديمقراطية تنسحب من كامل مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) • المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان". 20 October 2019. Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  49. ↑ "Menbiç'e operasyon başladı: 3 köy YPG'den temizlendi". Yeni Şafak. 14 October 2019. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  50. ↑ "EU Concerned Over Politicians Detention in Turkey". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2017-04-10.
  51. ↑ "Turkey says will take action if militants do not leave Syria's Manbij". Reuters. March 28, 2018. Archived from the original on October 10, 2019. Retrieved October 10, 2019– via www.reuters.com.
  52. ↑ Morton (2020), pp. 122–123, 167.
  53. ↑ Vanly (1992), p. 116.
  54. 1 2 3 4 Asli Aydıntaşbaş (28 May 2020). "A new Gaza: Turkey's border policy in northern Syria". Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  55. 1 2 Khayrallah al-Hilu (2019). "Afrin Under Turkish Control: Political, Economic and Social Transformations" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  56. ↑ Adar, Sinem; Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik (1 January 2020). "Repatriation to Turkey's "Safe Zone" in Northeast Syria". SWP Comment. doi:10.18449/2020C01. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  57. ↑ Fabrice Balanche (21 December 2018). "The district's ethnic composition and wartime migrations make it the weakest point of the YPG defense system, and the most likely entryway for Turkish troops and their proxies". Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  58. ↑ Tessa Fox (19 December 2019). "Who Exactly Is Turkey Resettling in Syria?". Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  59. 1 2 Ferhat Gurini (26 February 2019). "Turkey's Lack of Vision in Syria". Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  60. ↑ Sam Sweeney (31 October 2019). "As Turkey Invades Northeast Syria, Christians There Are on the Brink". National Review . Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  61. ↑ Tom Gjelten (9 October 2019). "Christian Leaders Say Turkish Invasion Of Syria Raises Risk Of 'Genocide'". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  62. 1 2 3 Patrick Cockburn (18 April 2018). "Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin". The Independent . Archived from the original on 13 June 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  63. 1 2 3 Ammar Hamou; Barrett Limoges (1 May 2018). "Seizing lands from Afrin's displaced Kurds, Turkish-backed militias offer houses to East Ghouta families". SYRIA:direct. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  64. ↑ "Syria's war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey's allies if they don't convert to extremism". The Independent. 12 March 2018. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  65. ↑ "More than 200,000 people fled Syria's Afrin, have no shelter: Kurdish official Archived 2018-11-25 at the Wayback Machine ". Reuters. 19 March 2018.
  66. ↑ "Afrin: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 offensive, says rights group". Rudaw. 20 April 2020. Archived from the original on 29 April 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  67. ↑ https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/45/31 Archived 2020-09-23 at the Wayback Machine . Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, 2020
  68. ↑ Hagedorn, Elizabeth (June 2, 2020). "'An insult to women' everywhere: Afrin kidnappings prompt calls for investigation of Turkey-backed rebels". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
  69. ↑ "Abuses against Kurdish women in Afrin under Turkish Parliament radar". Syrians for Truth & Justice. 31 December 2020. Archived from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  70. 1 2 "Kurdish woman reportedly murdered in Turkish-occupied Afrin". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Archived from the original on 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2020-07-31.
  71. ↑ "Rights Groups Concerned About Continued Abuses in Afrin | Voice of America - English". www.voanews.com. 10 June 2020. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  72. ↑ "Patrick Cockburn: Erdogan's ethnic cleansing of the Kurds is still happening now – and we have Trump to thank". The Independent. November 15, 2019. Archived from the original on August 25, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
  73. ↑ "The looming genocide against the Kurds: history should not repeat itself". openDemocracy. Archived from the original on 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2020-07-31.
  74. 1 2 Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (23 August 2018). "In Syria, It's Either Reconciliation or Annexation". The American Spectator . Archived from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  75. 1 2 Borzou Daragahi (13 July 2018). "Turkey Has Made a Quagmire for Itself in Syria". Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  76. 1 2 3 Barrett Limoges; Justin Clark; Avery Edelman (29 July 2018). "What's next for post-Islamic State Syria? A month-long reporting series from Syria Direct". Syria Direct, Konrad Adenauer Foundation . Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  77. 1 2 Rawa Barwari (13 January 2019). "Turkish sub-governor found dead at office in Syria's occupied Jarabulus". Kurdistan24. Archived from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  78. 1 2 3 4 5 Khaled al-Khateb (12 September 2017). "FSA relocating to outside Syria's liberated areas". al-Monitor . Archived from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  79. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Enab Baladi's Investigation Team (29 August 2018). "From Afrin to Jarabulus: A small replica of Turkey in the north". Enab Baladi . Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  80. ↑ Heras 2018, pp. 14–15.
  81. ↑ "White Helmets return to Afrin to mixed reception". Kurdistan 24. 26 August 2018. Archived from the original on 5 November 2019. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  82. ↑ Carlotta Gall (16 February 2021). "In Turkey's Safe Zone in Syria, Security and Misery Go Hand in Hand". New York Times . Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  83. ↑ Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim; Alice Al Maleh; Tariq Adely (26 March 2018). "Interim governing council formed to tackle 'disaster' in Afrin after Turkish-backed offensive". SYRIA:direct. Archived from the original on 24 August 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  84. ↑ "Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 2019-10-10. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  85. ↑ "Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin - World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 12 April 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-09-06. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  86. ↑ Kajjo, Sirwan (11 April 2018). "Turkey-backed council is to take over Afrin, suspicion abound". Ahval. Archived from the original on 2018-06-16. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  87. ↑ "Cinderes'te yerel meclis oluşturuldu". Timeturk.com. Archived from the original on 2018-11-18. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  88. ↑ "Local council set up in terror-free Tal Abyad in Syria - World News". 28 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-11-05. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  89. ↑ "Syria: Council set up in terror-free Ras al-Ayn". Archived from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  90. ↑ "Turkey's occupation of Syria slammed for ethnic cleansing". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Archived from the original on 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2020-07-31.
  91. ↑ "Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve Quarterly Report to the United States". Department of Defense Office of Inspector General. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2020-08-05.
  92. ↑ "Turkey-backed opposition to form new army in northern Syria". Archived from the original on 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
  93. ↑ Kajjo, Sirwan (25 August 2016). "Who are the Turkey backed Syrian Rebels?". Voice of America . Archived from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  94. ↑ Coskun, Orhan; Sezer, Seda (19 September 2016). "Turkey-backed rebels could push further south in Syria, Erdogan says". Reuters . Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  95. ↑ Baker, Rauf (September 2021). "When will Turkey annex Northern Syria?". Middle East Quarterly. Fall 2021. Archived from the original on November 1, 2021. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
  96. 1 2 Khaled al-Khateb (1 December 2017). "Women join opposition police forces in Aleppo's liberated areas". al-Monitor . Archived from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  97. ↑ Stein, Aaron; Abouzahr, Hossam; Komar, Rao (20 July 2017). "How Turkey Is Governing in Northern Aleppo". Syria Deeply. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  98. ↑ Amberin Zaman (25 January 2017). "Syria's new national security force pledges loyalty to Turkey". al-Monitor . Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  99. ↑ Bahira al-Zarier; Justin Clark; Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim; Ammar Hamou (14 May 2018). "Hidden explosives stunt movement, frighten Afrin residents two months into pro-Turkish rule". SYRIA:direct. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  100. ↑ Khaled al-Khateb (26 July 2018). "Day trippers flock to Afrin's orchards as Aleppo restores security". al-Monitor . Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
  101. ↑ "Turkey sends tanks into Syria to battle ISIS". 24 August 2016. Archived from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  102. ↑ Elements of pro-government NDF militias. Archived 2019-10-29 at the Wayback Machine
  103. ↑ "Syrian government demands Turkish troops leave Afrin". Archived from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  104. ↑ "Syria: Turkish regime forces occupation of Afrin illegitimate act". 19 March 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-03-20. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  105. ↑ "Syria expects Turkey to withdraw from its soil". Ahval. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-04-07. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  106. ↑ Virella, Kelly (28 September 2019). "Syria Demands Immediate Withdrawal of U.S. And Turkish Forces, Again". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  107. ↑ "SOC's President Calls on Turkey to Intervene alongside SNA to Force PYD from Tal Rifaat & Manbij". Syrian National Coalition Of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces. 2021-06-14. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  108. ↑ admin (2021-06-17). "After hostile statements, a Syrian opponent movement suspends its dialogues with the coalition". The Syrian Democratic Council. Archived from the original on 2021-11-03. Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  109. ↑ "Kurdish-backed council says Turkey's intervention to make Syrian town "grave for Erdoğan troops"". ARA News. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016.
  110. ↑ "ENKS urges int'l protection for Afrin, condemning PYD policy". Archived from the original on 2019-02-23. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  111. ↑ "Syrian Kurds welcome multi-ethnic Afrin local council". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 2019-07-02. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  112. ↑ "Akram Mahshoush: Partition wall aims to erase Kurdish identity, settle mercenaries". Hawar News Agency. 28 May 2019. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  113. ↑ "Azerbayjan Milletvekili Paşayeva". Milliyet Haber. 3 September 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2016-09-20.
  114. ↑ English, Duvar (2021-10-29). "China accuses Turkey of invading northeastern Syria". www.duvarenglish.com (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
  115. ↑ "China says Turkey's military operations in northeast Syria are illegal". www.kurdistan24.net. Archived from the original on 2021-11-02. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
  116. ↑ "Cyprus House condemns Turkey's invasion of Syria". Famagusta Gazette. 9 September 2016. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
  117. ↑ "North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions". www.consilium.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2021-11-07. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  118. ↑ "Foreign Affairs Council, 14 October 2019". www.consilium.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2021-11-07. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  119. ↑ "France's Macron Vows Support for Northern Syrians, Kurdish Militia, New York Times, March 30th, 2018". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2018-03-31. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  120. ↑ "Iran urges Turkey to quickly end Syria intervention". France24. 31 August 2016. Archived from the original on 31 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  121. ↑ Brzozowski, Alexandra (2019-10-14). "EU condemns Turkey's military action, stops short of common arms embargo". www.euractiv.com. Archived from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  122. ↑ "EU governments limit arms sales to Turkey but avoid embargo". Reuters. 2019-10-14. Archived from the original on 2021-04-29. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  123. ↑ "Notice on the Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to the Situation in and in Relation to Syria". The White House. 2021-10-07. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-11-03.

Works cited

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.