Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad

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Syrian opposition
المعارضة السورية
al-Muʻaraḍat as-Sūrīya
Also known as
  • Syrian revolutionaries
  • Syrian rebels
Dates of operation2011–2024
Country Syria
Motives
Headquarters
Ideology Anti-Assadism
Factions:
Political position Big tent
Allies
Opponents
Battles and wars Syrian civil war

The Syrian opposition was an umbrella term for the Syrian rebel organizations that opposed Bashar al-Assad's Ba'athist regime during the Syrian civil war. [1]

Contents

During the earliest stages of the Syrian uprising, the opposition in Syria was represented by grassroots organizations that emerged during the mass demonstration against the Ba'athist regime. In July 2011, at the situation turned into a civil war, defectors from the Syrian Armed Forces formed the Free Syrian Army. In August 2011, dissident groups operating from abroad formed a coalition called the Syrian National Council. A broader organization, the Syrian National Coalition (SNC), was formed in November 2012. Although the groups based abroad established contact with those in Syria, the Syrian opposition suffered during the whole conflict from infighting and a lack of unified leadership, as well as lack of foreign aid as the war became deadlocked. The Free Syrian Army went into a decline while rebel groups with conflicting aims clashed with each other, and the Syrian National Coalition came to operate mostly with Turkish backing.

In 2013, the Syrian National Coalition formed the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), which operated first as a government-in-exile and, from 2015, in certain zones of Syria. From 2016, the SIG was present in the Turkish-occupied zones, while the SNC operated from Istanbul. In 2017, the Islamist group Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), unaffiliated to the SNC, formed the Syrian Salvation Government (SSG) in the areas it controlled. Both opposition governments operated as quasi-states.

Rebel armed forces during the civil war have included the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army, affiliated to the SIG, the Syrian Liberation Front, the National Front for Liberation, the Southern Front, the Southern Operations Room, and the American-backed Syrian Free Army (previously known as the Revolutionary Commando Army). Other groups that challenged Bashar al-Assad's rule during the civil war were the Kurdish-dominated Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (Rojava) and the jihadist organization known as the Islamic State. The latter group is generally distinguished from the opposition, with whom it was in conflict.

In late 2024, various Syrian opposition groups launched simultaneous offensives that led to the fall of the Assad regime. HTS took power in Damascus, where they transferred the Syrian Salvation Government under the guise of the Syrian transitional government. [2] [3] [4]

Background

Syria has been an independent republic since 1946 after the expulsion of the French forces. For decades, the country was partially stable with a series of coups until the Ba'ath Party seized power in Syria in 1963 after a coup d'état. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad seized power, beginning the rule of the Assad family. Syria was under emergency law from the time of the 1963 Syrian coup d'état until 21 April 2011, when it was rescinded by Bashar al-Assad, Hafez's eldest surviving son and his successor as president of Syria. [5]

The rule of Assad dynasty was marked by heavy repression of secular opposition factions such as the Arab nationalist Nasserists and liberal democrats. The largest organised resistance to the Ba'athist rule has been the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, which successfully capitalised on the widespread Sunni resentment against the Alawite hegemony. An islamist uprising developed in Syria from 1976. In response, the Assad regime introduced Law No. 49 in 1980 which banned the movement and instituted death penalty of anyone accused of membership in the Brotherhood. The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood rose as the most powerful opposition force in Syria until it was brutally crushed in 1982. [6] [7]

Prior to the civil war that started in 2011, "opposition" (Arabic : المعارضة, romanized: al-muʕāraḍat) referred to traditional political actors such as political exiles, the public platforms that had emerged during the Damascus Spring and those who later formed the Damascus Declaration alliance; that is, groups and individuals with a history of dissidence against the Syrian state. [8]

History

As the revolutionary wave commonly referred to as the Arab Spring began to take shape in early 2011, Syrian protesters began consolidating opposition councils. Spontaneous protests became more planned and organized. [9] The uprising, from March 2011 until the start of August 2011, was characterized by a consensus for nonviolent struggle among the participants. [10] The opposition councils inside the country became known as the Local Coordination Committees of Syria. [11] [12]

The Istanbul Meeting for Syria, the first convention of the Syrian opposition, took place on 26 April 2011, during the early phase of the civil uprising. There followed the Antalya Conference for Change in Syria or Antalya Opposition Conference, a three-day conference of representatives of the Syrian opposition held from 31 May until 3 June 2011 in Antalya, Turkey.

Organized by Ammar al-Qurabi's National Organization for Human Rights in Syria and financed by the wealthy Damascene Sanqar family, it led to a final statement refusing compromise or reform solutions, and to the election of a 31-member leadership.

After the Antalya conference, a follow-up meeting took place two days later in Brussels, then another gathering in Paris that was addressed by Bernard-Henri Lévy, a French author who was involved at the same time in support for the Libyan uprising. [13] It took a number of further meetings in Istanbul and Doha before yet another meeting on 23 August 2011 in Istanbul set up a permanent transitional council in form of the Syrian National Council, [14] [15] which received significant international support and recognition as a partner for dialogue. The Syrian National Council was recognized or supported in some capacity by at least 17 member states of the United Nations, with three of those (France, the United Kingdom, and the United States) being permanent members of the Security Council. [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]

Opposition control (in green and white; Rojava control in yellow; Islamic State control in grey; Assad regime control in pink) in April 2016. Syrian civil war 01 04 2016.png
Opposition control (in green and white; Rojava control in yellow; Islamic State control in grey; Assad regime control in pink) in April 2016.
Opposition control in August 2024. Syrian Civil War map (August 7, 2024).svg
Opposition control in August 2024.
Areas under control of the former opposition groups as of December 2024. Syrian opposition map November 2024.svg
Areas under control of the former opposition groups as of December 2024.

The National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces (commonly known as the Syrian National Coalition), a broader umbrella organization formed in November 2012, gained recognition as the "legitimate representative of the Syrian people" by the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) and as a "representative of aspirations of Syrian people" by the Arab League. The Friends of Syria Group transferred its recognition from the Syrian National Council to the Syrian National Coalition. [22] The Syrian National Coalition subsequently took the seat of Syria in the Arab League, with the representative of Bashar Al-Assad's government suspended that year. [23] The Syrian National Council, initially a part of the Syrian National Coalition, withdrew on 20 January 2014 in protest at the decision of the coalition to attend the Geneva talks. [24] Despite tensions, the Syrian National Council retained a degree of ties with the Syrian National Coalition.

A July 2015 ORB International poll of 1,365 adults across all of Syria's 14 governorates found that about 26 percent of the population supported the Syrian opposition (41 percent in the areas it controlled), compared to 47 percent who supported the Ba'athist government (73 percent in the areas it controlled), 35 percent who supported the Al-Nusra Front (58 percent in the areas it controlled), and 22 percent who supported the Islamic State (74 percent in the areas it controlled). [25] A March 2018 ORB International Poll with a similar method and sample size found that support had changed to 40% Syrian government, 40% Syrian opposition (in general), 15% Syrian Democratic Forces, 10% al-Nusra Front, and 4% Islamic State (crossover may exist between supporters of factions). [26]

While rebel forces, initially made significant advances against government forces, the Iranian and Russian interventions in support of the Assad regime shifted the balance of the conflict. Syrian rebel forces were also under attack by the Islamic State as the conflict became multi-sided. Ba'athist forces gradually recaptured most rebel strongholds except the Idlib Governorate and Turkish-occupied zones. A major battle between rebel groups and government forces took place in Aleppo, which was recaptured by the regime in late 2016. In the meantime, Syrian opposition groups, including the Syrian National Coalition, tried to negotiate with the regime as part of a peace process that failed to produce results. The Syrian National Coalition remained fraught with internal conflict and leadership problems. Qatar and Saudi Arabia competed for influence over it. [27] Eventually, the Istanbul-based SNC became essentially a platform for Turkish influence and lost much of its international clout. [28]

In late 2015, the Syrian Interim Government relocated its headquarters to the city of Azaz in North Syria and began to execute some authority in the area. [29] [30] From 2017, the opposition government in the Idlib Governorate was challenged by the rival Syrian Salvation Government, backed by the Islamist faction Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). Moreover, in the areas it nominally controlled, the SIG remained wholly dependent on Turkish support. [31] As of 2022, the Syrian opposition had to deal with Turkey's willingness to normalize relations with the Assad regime. This, together with Turkey's local interference and its handling of the Syrian refugees situation, led in July 2024 to anti-Turkish riots in opposition-held areas.

In late 2024, opposition forces led a series of lightning offensives, routing Ba'athist forces and taking Damascus on December 8. The regime collapsed as Bashar al-Assad fled to Moscow. [2] On December 10, Mohammed al-Bashir, previously head of the Syrian Salvation Government, became prime minister of the Syrian transitional government that replaced both the SSG and the last Ba'athist government in Damascus. [32] [33] With one exception, all ministers in the transitional government previously held similar portfolios in the SSG. [34] Ahmed al-Sharaa, head of HTS, became regarded as Syria's de facto leader. [35] In January 2025, he was formally named Syria's acting president by the transitional government. [36]

Political groups

The Syrian opposition never had a definitive political structure. In December 2015, members of the Syrian opposition convened in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: 34 groups attended the convention, which aimed to produce a unified delegation for negotiations with the Syrian government. [37] Notable groups present included:

The December 2015 convention notably did not include: [37]

National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

Official logo of the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces SyrianNationalCoalitionOfficialLogo.svg
Official logo of the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

The National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, commonly known as the Syrian National Coalition (SNC), is a coalition of opposition groups and individuals, mostly exilic, who support the Syrian revolutionary side and oppose the Assad government ruling Syria. It formed on 11 November 2012 at a conference of opposition groups and individuals held in Doha, Qatar. It has relations with other opposition organizations such as the Syrian National Council, the previous iteration of an exilic political body attempting to represent the grassroots movement; the union of the two was planned, but has failed to realize. Moderate Islamic preacher Moaz al-Khatib, who had protested on the Syrian street in the early nonviolent phase of the uprising, served a term as the president of the coalition, but soon resigned his post, frustrated with the gap between the body and the grassroots of the uprising inside Syria. [38] Riad Seif and Suheir Atassi, both of whom had also protested on the street in Syria early in the uprising, were elected as vice presidents. Mustafa Sabbagh is the coalition's secretary-general. [39]

Notable members of the Coalition include:

Syrian National Council

The Syrian National Council (SNC), [42] [43] sometimes known as the Syrian National Transitional Council or the National Council of Syria, [44] is a Syrian opposition coalition based in Istanbul (Turkey) that was formed in August 2011 during the Syrian civil uprising against the government of Bashar al-Assad. [45] [46]

Initially, the council denied seeking to play the role of a government in exile, [47] but this changed a few months later when violence in Syria intensified. [48] [49] [50] The Syrian National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. The SNC National Charter lists human rights, judicial independence, press freedom, democracy and political pluralism as its guiding principles. [51]

In November 2012, the Council agreed to unite with several other opposition groups to form the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, with the SNC having 22 out of 60 seats. [52] [53] [54] The Council withdrew from the Coalition on 20 January 2014 in protest at the decision of the Coalition to attend talks in Geneva. [55]

Notable members of the Council include:

National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change

The National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change (NCC), or the National Coordination Body for Democratic Change (NCB), [58] is a Syrian bloc chaired by Hassan Abdel Azim and consisting of 13 left-wing political parties and "independent political and youth activists." [59] Reuters has defined the committee as the internal opposition's main umbrella group. [60] The NCC initially had several Kurdish political parties as members, but all except for the Democratic Union Party left in October 2011 to join the Kurdish National Council. [61] The NCC proved controversial among other opposition groups, with activists rejecting its calls for dialogue with Bashar al-Assad and accusing it of being a "front organization" for the Ba'athist regime. [62]

The NCC generally has poor relationships with other Syrian political opposition groups. The Syrian Revolution General Commission, the Local Coordination Committees of Syria, and the Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution oppose the NCC calls to dialogue with the Syrian government. [63] In September 2012 the Syrian National Council (SNC) reaffirmed that despite broadening its membership, it would not join with "currents close to [the] NCC". [64] Despite the NCC recognizing the Free Syrian Army (FSA) on 23 September 2012, [65] the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin". [60]

Notable former members of the Committee have included:

Syrian Democratic Council

The Syrian Democratic Council was established on 10 December 2015 in al-Malikiyah. It was co-founded by prominent human rights activist Haytham Manna and was intended as the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces. The council includes more than a dozen blocs and coalitions that support federalism in Syria, including the Movement for a Democratic Society, the Kurdish National Alliance in Syria, the Law–Citizenship–Rights Movement, and since September 2016 the Syria's Tomorrow Movement. The last group is led by former National Coalition president and Syrian National Council Ahmad Jarba. In August 2016 the SDC opened a public office in al-Hasakah. [68]

The Syrian Democratic Council is considered an "alternative opposition" bloc. [69] Its leaders included former NCC members such as Riad Darar, a "key figure" in the Syrian opposition, and Haytham Manna, who resigned from the SDC in March 2016 in protest of its announcement of the Northern Syria Federation. [70] The SDC was rejected by some other opposition groups due to its system of federalism. [71]

The Syrian Democratic Council was invited to participate in the international Geneva III peace talks on Syria in March 2016. However, it rejected the invitations because no representatives of the Movement for a Democratic Society, led by the Democratic Union Party, were invited.[ citation needed ]

Other groups affiliated with the Syrian opposition

Other opposition groups

Parliamentary opposition

Several political parties and organizations existed inside Syria, and they reached the dome of the People's Assembly. Among these parties are included:

The Popular Front for Change and Liberation decided to boycott the 2016 elections because the regime had not upheld its promise to amend to the constitution. [106]

Governance

Syrian Interim Government

At a conference held in Istanbul on 19 March 2013 members of the National Coalition elected Ghassan Hitto as prime minister of an interim government for Syria, the Syrian Interim Government (SIG). Hitto has announced that a technical government will be formed which will be led by between 10 and 12 ministers, with the Free Syrian Army choosing the Minister of Defense. [107] The SIG is based in Turkey. It has been the primary civilian authority throughout most of opposition-held Syria. Its system of administrative local councils operate services such as schools and hospitals in these areas, as well as the Free Aleppo University. [108] [109] By late 2017, it presided over 12 provincial councils and over 400 elected local councils. It also operates a major border crossing between Syria and Turkey, which generates an estimated $1 million revenue each month. [108] It is internationally recognized by the European Union and the United States, among others. It maintains diplomatic ties with some non-FSA rebel groups, such as Ahrar al-Sham, but has been in conflict with the more extreme Tahrir al-Sham, which is one of the largest armed groups in Idlib Governorate. [108]

Syrian Salvation Government

The Syrian Salvation Government was an alternative government of the Syrian opposition seated within Idlib Governorate, which was formed by the General Syrian Conference in September 2017. [110] The domestic group has appointed Mohammed al-Sheikh as head of the Government with 11 more ministers for Interior, Justice, Endowment, Higher Education, Education, Health, Agriculture, Economy, Social Affairs and Displaced, Housing and Reconstruction and Local Administration and Services. Al-Sheikh, in a press conference held at the Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing has also announced the formation of four commissions: Inspection Authority, Prisoners and missing Affairs, Planning and Statistics Authority, and the Union of Trade Unions. [111] The founder of the Free Syrian Army, Col. Riad al-Asaad, was appointed as deputy prime minister for military affairs.[ citation needed ] The SSG is associated with Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and not recognised by the rest of the opposition, which is in conflict with HTS. [111]

There was a sharp ideological divide between the two competing opposition civil authorities: The SIG espouses secular, moderate values and regularly participated in international peace talks; the SSG enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law and stringently rejected talks with the Syrian regime. [108]

After the fall of the Assad regime, the SSG was replaced by the Syrian transitional government, installed in Damascus.

Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria is an area that extends in northeastern Syria and includes parts of the governorates Al-Hasakah, Al-Raqqa, Aleppo and Deir ez-Zor. [112] The capital of the area is Ain Issa, a town belonging to the Al-Raqqa governorate. [113] The Administration is headed by Siham Qaryo and Farid Atti with a joint head. [114] In January 2014, a number of parties, social actors, and civil institutions announced the formation of the Autonomous Administration to fill the power vacuum that existed at that time in the Syrian Kurdish regions. [115] Although its authority has not been recognized or authorized by any formal agreement involving the sovereign Syrian state or any international power, its presence in the region and its ability to wield power was unchallenged. [112]

Territorial control

Current situation after the November-December 2024 offensives Syrian Civil War map.svg
Current situation after the November-December 2024 offensives

Various Syrian opposition groups have at least some presence in seven Syrian governorates, though none is fully under the control of the entity. Governorates with partial opposition control include:

Governorates under partial control of opposition groups aligned with the Syrian Interim Government:

Governorates under partial control of opposition groups aligned with the Syrian Democratic Council:

Interim Government

In April 2015, after the Second Battle of Idlib, the interim seat of the Syrian Interim Government was proposed to be Idlib, in the Idlib Governorate. However, this move was rejected by the al-Nusra Front and Ahrar al-Sham-led Army of Conquest, which between them controlled Idlib. [116] According to the Syrian National Coalition, in 2017 there were 404 opposition-aligned local councils operating in villages, towns, and cities controlled by rebel forces. [117] In 2016, the Syrian Interim Government became established within the Turkish-controlled areas.

Salvation Government

The Salvation Government extends authority in Idlib, Aleppo, Hama, Homs, and the coastal regions of Northwestern Syria.

Al-Tanf Garrison

The Al-Tanf Garrison controls the city of Palmyra and surrounding areas near the Al-Tanf military base.[ citation needed ]

Southern Front

The Southern Front controls areas on the border with Jordan and the Golan Heights, including all of the Daraa Governorate and part of the Quneitra Governorate. [118] [119]

Recognition and foreign relations

The foreign relations of the Syrian opposition refers to the external relations of the self-proclaimed oppositional Syrian Arab Republic, which sees itself as the genuine Syria. The region of control of Syrian opposition affiliated groups is not well defined. The Turkish government recognizes Syrian opposition as the genuine Syrian Arab Republic and hosts several of its institutions on its territory. The Syrian National Coalition was granted Syria's seat in the Arab League in 2013, but the next year it was decided that the seat would remain vacant until the opposition stabilized its institutions. [120] SNC representatives were allowed to participate in the Arab League's meetings on an exceptional basis. [121]

The opposition as a whole is characterised as "terrorist" by Iran, [122] Russia [123] and Syria. [124]

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Afghan Taliban Administration issued a statement. "Afghanistan congratulates the leadership of the movement and the people of Syria on the recent developments, which have resulted in the removal of key factors contributing to conflict & instability." "The capital, Damascus, has come under control of Syrian people under the leadership of Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham and we express hope that the remaining phases of the revolution will be managed effectively to establish a peaceful, unified, & stable governance system." [125]

Military forces

Revolutionary Commando Army fighters during M240B machine gun training with U.S. Army Special Forces, al-Tanf, 4 March 2020 Green Berets, partner force machine gun training.jpg
Revolutionary Commando Army fighters during M240B machine gun training with U.S. Army Special Forces, al-Tanf, 4 March 2020

Initially, the Free Syrian Army was perceived as the ultimate military force of the Syrian Opposition, but with the collapse of many FSA factions and emergence of powerful Islamist groups, it became clear to the opposition that only a cooperation of secular military forces and moderate Islamists could form a sufficient coalition to battle both the Syrian Government forces and radical Jihadists such as ISIL and in some cases al-Nusra Front.

In 2014, the military forces associated with the Syrian Opposition were defined by the Syrian Revolutionary Command Council, which in turn was mainly relying on the Free Syrian Army (with links to Syrian National Coalition) and the Islamic Front. Members of the Syrian Revolutionary Command Council:

Other rebel fighting forces:

List of opposition figures

See also

Notes

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    References

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    2. 1 2 "Ousted Syrian leader Assad flees to Moscow after fall of Damascus, Russian state media say". AP News. 8 December 2024. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
    3. ↑ jcookson (8 December 2024). "Experts react: Rebels have toppled the Assad regime. What's next for Syria, the Middle East, and the world?". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
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