Alliaria petiolata

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Alliaria petiolata
Alliaria petiolata marais-belloy-sur-somme 80 26042007 3.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Alliaria
Species:
A. petiolata
Binomial name
Alliaria petiolata
Synonyms [1]
  • Alliaria alliacea (Salisb.) Britten & Rendle
  • Alliaria alliaria (L.) Huth
  • Alliaria fuchsii Rupr.
  • Alliaria mathioli Rupr.
  • Arabis alliaria Bernh.
  • Arabis petiolata M.Bieb.
  • Clypeola alliacea Crantz
  • Crucifera alliaria (L.) E.H.L.Krause
  • Erysimum alliaceum Salisb.
  • Erysimum alliaria L.
  • Erysimum cordifolium Pall.
  • Hesperis alliaria (L.) Lam.
  • Pallavicinia alliaria (L.) Cocc.
  • Sisymbrion alliarium St.-Lag.
  • Sisymbrium alliaria (L.) Scop.
  • Sisymbrium truncatum Dulac

Alliaria petiolata, or garlic mustard, is a biennial flowering plant in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is native to Europe, western and central Asia, north-western Africa, Morocco, Iberia and the British Isles, north to northern Scandinavia, [2] and east to northern Pakistan and Xinjiang in western China. [1]

Contents

In the first year of growth, plants form clumps of round, slightly wrinkled leaves, that when crushed smell like garlic. The plants flower in spring of the next year, producing cross-shaped white flowers in dense clusters. As the flowering stems bloom they elongate into a spike-like shape. When flowering is complete, plants produce upright fruits that release seeds in mid-summer. Plants are often found growing along the margins of hedges, giving rise to the old British folk name of jack-by-the-hedge. Other common names include: garlic mustard, [3] garlic root, hedge garlic, sauce-alone, jack-in-the-bush, penny hedge and poor man's mustard. The genus name Alliaria, "resembling Allium ", refers to the garlic-like odour of the crushed foliage. All parts of the plant, including the roots, have this smell.

Description

It is an herbaceous biennial plant growing from a deeply growing, thin, whitish taproot scented like horseradish. In their first years, plants are rosettes of green leaves close to the ground; these rosettes remain green through the winter and develop into mature flowering plants the following spring. Second-year plants often grow from 30–100 cm (12–39 in) tall, rarely to 130 cm (51 in) tall. The leaves are stalked, triangular through heart shaped, 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) long (of which about half being the petiole) and 5–9 cm (2.0–3.5 in) broad, with coarsely toothed margins. The flowers are produced in spring and summer in small clusters. Each small flower has four white petals 4–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long and 2–3 mm (0.08–0.12 in) broad, arranged in a cross shape. The fruit is an erect, slender, four-sided capsule 4–5.5 cm (1.6–2.2 in) long, [4] called a silique, green maturing to pale grey brown, containing two rows of small shiny black seeds which are released when a silique splits open. A single plant can produce hundreds of seeds, which often scatter several meters from the parent plant.

Depending upon conditions, garlic mustard flowers either self-fertilize or are cross-pollinated by a variety of insects.

Close-up of garlic mustard flowers (MHNT) Alliaria petiolata - flowers.jpg
Close-up of garlic mustard flowers
garlic mustard seeds Alliaria petiolataseeds.jpg
garlic mustard seeds

Sixty-nine insect herbivores and seven fungi are associated with garlic mustard in Europe. The most important groups of natural enemies associated with garlic mustard were weevils (particularly the genus Ceutorhynchus ), leaf beetles, butterflies, and moths, including the larvae of some moth species such as the garden carpet moth. [5] The small white flowers have a rather unpleasant aroma which attracts midges and hoverflies, although the flowers usually pollinate themselves. In June the pale green caterpillar of the orange tip butterfly (Anthocharis cardamines) can be found feeding on the long green seed-pods from which it can hardly be distinguished. [6]

Cultivation and uses

Garlic mustard is one of the oldest spices used in Europe. Phytoliths in pottery of the Ertebølle and Funnelneck-Beaker culture in north-eastern Germany and Denmark, dating to 4100–3750 BCE, [7] indicate its use in that era.

In the 17th-century Britain, it was recommended as a flavouring for salt fish. It can also be made into a sauce for eating with roast lamb or salad. [6] Early European settlers brought the herb to the New World to use as a garlic-type flavouring. Its traditional medicinal purposes include use as a diuretic. [8] The herb was also planted as a form of erosion control. [9]

Today, the chopped leaves are used for flavouring in salads and sauces such as pesto, and sometimes the flowers and fruit are included as well. The leaves, best when young, taste of both garlic and mustard. The seeds are sometimes used in France to season food. [8] Garlic mustard was once used medicinally [10] as a disinfectant or diuretic, and was sometimes used to treat wounds. [8]

Toxicity

Young first-year garlic mustard plants contain up to 100ppm cyanide, a level which is toxic to many vertebrates. [11] Once the plant is chopped up the cyanide gas is eliminated. [12]

Invasive species in North America

Garlic mustard was introduced to North America by European settlers in the 1800s for culinary and medicinal purposes. [13] The species was recorded as being in Long Island in 1868. [14] It has since spread all over North America, apart from the far south of the US and some prairie states and Canadian provinces. [15] It is toxic or unpalatable to many native herbivores, as well as to some native Lepidoptera. [16] [17] [18] [19]

The plant is classified as an invasive species in North America. Since being brought to the United States by settlers, it has naturalized and expanded its range to include most of the Northeast and Midwest, as well as south-eastern Canada. [20] It is one of the few invasive herbaceous species able to dominate the understory of North American forests and has thus reduced the biodiversity of many areas. [5]

Of the many natural enemies it has in its native range, several have been tested for use as biological control agents. Five weevil species from the genus Ceutorhynchus and one flea beetle were selected as candidates for preliminary testing in the 1990s. Since that time, those studying the candidates have narrowed the list to two or three weevils. Despite the demonstrated effectiveness of C. scrobicollis and C. constrictus in field testing, the importation and release of biological control agents such as those has been repeatedly blocked by the USDA's TAG (Technical Advisory Group). In particular, C. scrobicollis, which is monophagous and has been specifically studied since 2002, continues to be blocked, despite researchers' many petitions for approval. [21] [22] It is currently estimated that adequate control of garlic mustard can be achieved by the introduction of just two weevils, with C. scrobicollis being the most important of the two. [23] None of the roughly 76 species that control this plant in its native range has been approved for introduction as of 2018 and federal agencies continue to use more traditional forms of control, such as chemical herbicides. [24]

In North America, the plant offers very little wildlife benefits and is toxic to larvae of certain rarer butterfly species (e.g. Pieris oleracea and Pieris virginiensis ) that lay eggs on the plants, as it is related to native mustards but creates chemicals that they are not adapted to. [25] [26] They have also been known to inhibit growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi. These fungi play many different roles in a forest ecosystem however inhibition by Alliaria petiolata, may impact tree seedlings in a given environment. [27] Though this plant does have antimicrobial properties, it has an overall weak effect on bacterial communities found in soil, which only occurs under temporally specific conditions. [28]

Native species, including two stem-mining weevils, a stem-mining fly, a leaf-mining fly, a scale insect, two fungi, and aphids (taxonomic identification for all species is pending) were found attacking garlic mustard in North America. However, their attacks were of little consequence to plant performance or reproduction of garlic mustard. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brassicaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The leaves are simple, lack stipules, and appear alternately on stems or in rosettes. The inflorescences are terminal and lack bracts. The flowers have four free sepals, four free alternating petals, two shorter free stamens and four longer free stamens. The fruit has seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green-veined white</span> Species of butterfly

The green-veined white is a butterfly of the family Pieridae.

<i>Lythrum salicaria</i> Species of plant

Lythrum salicaria or purple loosestrife is a flowering plant belonging to the family Lythraceae. It should not be confused with other plants sharing the name loosestrife that are members of the family Primulaceae. Other names include spiked loosestrife and purple Lythrum. This herbaceous perennial is native to Europe and Asia, and possibly Australia.

<i>Carduus nutans</i> Species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae

Carduus nutans is a biennial plant in the daisy and sunflower family Asteraceae with the common names musk thistle, nodding thistle, and nodding plumeless thistle. It is native to regions of Europe, Central Asia, and North Africa, where it is a scattered pasture plant. The musk thistle has been declared as invasive in North America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

<i>Onopordum acanthium</i> Species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae

Onopordum acanthium is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to Europe and Western Asia from the Iberian Peninsula east to Kazakhstan, and north to central Scandinavia, and widely naturalised elsewhere, with especially large populations present in the United States and Australia. It is a vigorous biennial plant with coarse, spiny leaves and conspicuous spiny-winged stems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allelopathy</span> Production of biochemicals which affect the growth of other organisms

Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an organism produces one or more biochemicals that influence the germination, growth, survival, and reproduction of other organisms. These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals and can have beneficial or detrimental effects on the target organisms and the community. Allelopathy is often used narrowly to describe chemically-mediated competition between plants; however, it is sometimes defined more broadly as chemically-mediated competition between any type of organisms. The original concept developed by Hans Molisch in 1937 seemed focused only on interactions between plants, between microorganisms and between microorganisms and plants. Allelochemicals are a subset of secondary metabolites, which are not directly required for metabolism of the allelopathic organism.

<i>Pieris</i> (butterfly) Butterfly genus in family Pieridae

Pieris, the whites or garden whites, is a widespread, now almost cosmopolitan, genus of butterflies of the family Pieridae. The highest species diversity is in the Palearctic, with a higher diversity in Europe and eastern North America than the similar and closely related Pontia. The females of many Pieris butterflies are UV reflecting, while the male wings are strongly UV absorbing due to pigments in the scales.

<i>Pieris oleracea</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris oleracea, or more commonly known as the mustard white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae native to a large part of Canada and the northeastern United States. The nearly all-white butterfly is often found in wooded areas or open plains. There are two seasonal forms, which make it distinct from other similar species. Because of climate change, populations are moving further north.

<i>Pinus pinaster</i> Species of plant

Pinus pinaster, the maritime pine or cluster pine, is a pine native to the south Atlantic Europe region and parts of the western Mediterranean. It is a hard, fast growing pine bearing small seeds with large wings.

<i>Centaurea diffusa</i> Species of flowering plant

Centaurea diffusa, also known as diffuse knapweed, white knapweed or tumble knapweed, is a member of the genus Centaurea in the family Asteraceae. This species is common throughout western North America but is not actually native to the North American continent, but to the eastern Mediterranean.

<i>Pieris virginiensis</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris virginiensis, the West Virginia white, is a butterfly found in North America in the Great Lakes states, along the Appalachians from New England to Alabama, and in southern Ontario. They are typically found in moist deciduous forests. Forestry, development, and a highly-invasive species that it confuses with its host plant (Cardamine) are causing this species to decline.

<i>Cirsium arvense</i> Species of flowering plant

Cirsium arvense is a perennial species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native throughout Europe and western Asia, northern Africa and widely introduced elsewhere. The standard English name in its native area is creeping thistle. It is also commonly known as Canada thistle and field thistle.

<i>Centaurea solstitialis</i> Species of flowering plant

Centaurea solstitialis, the yellow star-thistle, is a species of thorny plant in the genus Centaurea, which is part of the family Asteraceae. A winter annual, it is native to the Mediterranean Basin region and invasive in many other places. It is also known as golden starthistle, yellow cockspur and St. Barnaby's thistle.

<i>Erysiphe cruciferarum</i> Species of fungus

Erysiphe cruciferarum is a plant pathogen of the family Erysiphaceae, which causes the main powdery mildew of crucifers, including on Brassica crops, such as cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. E. cruciferarum is distributed worldwide, and is of particular concentration in continental Europe and the Indian subcontinent. E. cruciferarum is an ascomycete fungus that has both sexual and asexual stages. It is also an obligate parasite that appears to have host specificity; for example, isolates from turnip will not infect Brussels sprout, and vice versa. While being a part of the family Erysiphaceae, it belongs to those members in which the conidia are formed singly and whose haustoria are multilobed.

<i>Diplotaxis tenuifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Diplotaxis tenuifolia is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family known by the common name perennial wall-rocket. It is native to Europe and western Asia, where it grows on disturbed ground and roadsides, and it can now be found throughout much of the temperate world where it has naturalized. In recent years it has increasingly been cultivated to produce salad leaves, which are marketed as wild rocket in Britain or arugula in the US. It is easily confused with garden rocket, which has similar uses.

The evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis was first proposed by Bernd Blossey and Rolf Nötzold in 1995 as a way to explain the success of invasive, non-indigenous species. Observing that:

  1. there is usually a lag period between the time of introduction of an invasive species and the point at which it is considered invasive, and
  2. invasive plants seem to be more virulent in habitats into which they have been introduced, the scientists presumed a sort of naturalization through modification for non-indigenous plants.
<i>Torilis japonica</i> Species of flowering plant

Torilis japonica, the erect hedgeparsley, upright hedge-parsley or Japanese hedge parsley, is a herbaceous flowering plant species in the celery family Apiaceae. Japanese hedge parsley is considered both an annual and biennial plant depending on the biogeographical location. This means Japanese hedge parsley can complete its life cycle in either one or two growing seasons depending on habitat. Japanese hedge parsley is typically found in areas with disturbed soils, pastures, margins, open woodland, near waste sites, or right-of-way habitats. It can withstand a variety of habitats, thriving in partial and full shaded areas, but also withstanding habitats with full sunlight penetration. It is considered an aggressive invasive species in North America; invading a wide range of habitats due to its environmental tolerance and tendency to outcompete native vegetation. This species is considered a threat in several areas that causes problems relating to overall environmental health and stability. Aside from its environmental implications, T. japonica has potential to fight several cancers through a terpene it produces called Torilin, extracted from its fruits.

<i>Parthenium hysterophorus</i> Species of flowering plant

Parthenium hysterophorus is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to the American tropics. Common names include Santa-Maria, Santa Maria feverfew, whitetop weed, and famine weed. In India, it is locally known as carrot grass, congress grass or gajar ghas or dhanura. It is a common invasive species in India, Australia, and parts of Africa.

<i>Borodinia perstellata</i> Species of flowering plant

Borodinia perstellata, commonly known as Braun's rockcress and Nevada rockcress, is a rare species of flowering plant in the mustard family. It is native to Kentucky and Tennessee, where it is known from perhaps 25 total populations. Most of the occurrences have few individuals, and all are deteriorating in quality. The plant grows in shady forest habitat on limestone substrates, usually near streams or rivers. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Garlic mustard as an invasive species</span> Aspect of North American ecology

Garlic mustard was introduced to North America as a culinary herb in the 1860s and it is considered an invasive species in much of North America. As of 2020 it has been documented in most of the Eastern United States and Canada, with scattered populations in the west. It is listed as a noxious or restricted plant in the following states: Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. A current map of its distribution in the United States can be found at the Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System (EDDmapS).

References

  1. 1 2 "Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Cavara & Grande | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". powo.science.kew.org. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  2. ↑ "Flora Europaea". Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
  3. ↑ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
  4. ↑ "Invader of the Month – Garlic Mustard – Alliaria petiolata" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
  5. 1 2 3 Blossey, Bernd; Nuzzo, Victoria A.; Hinz, Hariet L.; Gerber, Esther (August 2002). "Garlic Mustard". In Van Driesche, Roy; Blossey, Bernd; Hoddle, Mark; Lyon, Suzanne; Reardon, Richard (eds.). Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States (PDF). USDA Forest Service. pp. 365–372. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.96.3575 .
  6. 1 2 Reader's Digest Nature Lover's Library, Field Guide to the Wildflowers of Britain, Editor Michael W. Davison, Art Editor Neal V. Martin, The Reader's Digest Association Limited, 11 Westferry Circus, Canary Wharf, London E144HE, Reprint 2001, ISBN   0 276 42506 5 [ page needed ]
  7. ↑ Saul, Hayley; Madella, Marco; Fischer, Anders; Glykou, Aikaterini; Hartz, Sönke; Craig, Oliver E. (21 August 2013). "Phytoliths in Pottery Reveal the Use of Spice in European Prehistoric Cuisine". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e70583. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...870583S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070583 . PMC   3749173 . PMID   23990910.
  8. 1 2 3 Gualtiero Simonetti (1990). Stanley Schuler (ed.). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices . Simon & Schuster, Inc. ISBN   0-671-73489-X.
  9. ↑ Kleinstein, Debby. "Introduced Species Summary Project Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata)" . Retrieved 19 May 2015.
  10. ↑ "Plants for a Future: Database Search Results" . Retrieved 16 May 2009.
  11. ↑ Cipollini, Don; Gruner, Bill (19 December 2006). "Cyanide in the Chemical Arsenal of Garlic Mustard, Alliaria petiolata". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 33 (1): 85–94. Bibcode:2006JCEco..33...85C. doi:10.1007/s10886-006-9205-x. PMID   17146719. S2CID   34736542.
  12. ↑ Main, Douglas (26 April 2021). "Invasive garlic mustard hurts native species—but its harmful powers wane over time". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2022. ...the cyanide is easily sidestepped by chopping up the plant, which releases most of the gas in a few minutes.
  13. ↑ "Garlic Mustard Monitoring Along the Bruce Trail in the Nottawasaga Valley Watershed" (PDF). Nottawasaga Valley Conservation Authority. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  14. ↑ Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010). Complete guide to edible wild plants, mushrooms, fruits, and nuts: how to find, identify, and cook them. FalconGuides. p. 17. ISBN   978-1-59921-887-8. OCLC   560560606.
  15. ↑ "Alliaria petiolata". Ontario Wildflowers. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  16. ↑ Haribal, Meena; Renwick, J.Alan A. (April 1998). "Isovitexin 6"-O-β-d-glucopyranoside: A feeding deterrent to Pieris napi oleracea from Alliaria petiolata". Phytochemistry. 47 (7): 1237–1240. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00740-1 .
  17. ↑ Daxenbichler, Melvin E.; Spencer, Gayland F.; Carlson, Diana G.; Rose, Gertrude B.; Brinker, Anita M.; Powell, Richard G. (January 1991). "Glucosinolate composition of seeds from 297 species of wild plants". Phytochemistry. 30 (8): 2623–2638. Bibcode:1991PChem..30.2623D. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(91)85112-d.
  18. ↑ Cipollini, D. (1 September 2002). "Variation in the expression of chemical defenses in Alliaria petiolata (Brassicaceae) in the field and common garden". American Journal of Botany. 89 (9): 1422–1430. doi: 10.3732/ajb.89.9.1422 . PMID   21665743.
  19. ↑ Rodgers, Vikki L.; Wolfe, Benjamin E.; Werden, Leland K.; Finzi, Adrien C. (September 2008). "The invasive species Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) increases soil nutrient availability in northern hardwood-conifer forests". Oecologia. 157 (3): 459–471. Bibcode:2008Oecol.157..459R. doi:10.1007/s00442-008-1089-8. PMID   18612654. S2CID   13475605.
  20. ↑ USDA NRCS National Plant Data Team. "Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande". USDA Plants Database. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  21. ↑ Landis, Doug. "Management Options". Integrated Pest Management. Michigan State University. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  22. ↑ Reardon, Richard. "FHTET Biological Control Program – Sponsored Projects" (PDF). FHTET Biological Control Program. USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  23. ↑ Becker, R., 2017. Implementing Biological Control of Garlic Mustard – Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund 2017 RFP. http://www.lccmr.leg.mn/proposals/2017/original/107-d.pdf
  24. ↑ Thiele, Rebecca (5 January 2018). "Invasive Garlic Mustard: Love It Or Leave It?". WOSU News.
  25. ↑ "Pest Management Invasive Plant Control – Garlic Mustard (Alliara petiolata) USDA NRCS Conservation Practice Job Sheet MN-797" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
  26. ↑ Davis, Samantha (1 January 2015). Evaluating Threats to the Rare Butterfly, Pieris Virginiensis (Thesis).
  27. ↑ Wolfe, Benjamin E.; Rodgers, Vikki L.; Stinson, Kristina A.; Pringle, Anne (10 June 2008). "The invasive plant Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) inhibits ectomycorrhizal fungi in its introduced range". Journal of Ecology. 96 (4): 777–783. Bibcode:2008JEcol..96..777W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01389.x. ISSN   0022-0477.
  28. ↑ Burke, David J.; Chan, Charlotte R. (January 2010). "Effects of the invasive plant garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) on bacterial communities in a northern hardwood forest soil". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 56 (1): 81–86. doi:10.1139/w09-100. ISSN   0008-4166. PMID   20130698.
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