Arachnoid cyst

Last updated
Arachnoid cyst
Arachnoid cyst (cropped).jpg
An MRI of a 25-year-old woman with left frontotemporal arachnoid cyst.
Specialty Neurosurgery   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg

Arachnoid cysts are cerebrospinal fluid covered by arachnoidal cells and collagen [1] that may develop between the surface of the brain and the cranial base or on the arachnoid membrane, one of the three meningeal layers that cover the brain and the spinal cord. [2] Primary arachnoid cysts are a congenital disorder whereas secondary arachnoid cysts are the result of head injury or trauma. [3] Most cases of primary cysts begin during infancy; however, onset may be delayed until adolescence. [2]

Contents

Signs and symptoms

Patients with arachnoid cysts may never show symptoms, even in some cases where the cyst is large. Therefore, while the presence of symptoms may provoke further clinical investigation, symptoms independent of further data cannot—and should not—be interpreted as evidence of a cyst's existence, size, location, or potential functional impact on the patient.[ citation needed ]

Symptoms vary by the size and location of the cyst(s), though small cysts usually have no symptoms and are discovered only incidentally. [2] On the other hand, a number of symptoms may result from large cysts:

Location-specific symptoms

Causes

The exact cause of arachnoid cysts is not known. Researchers believe that most cases of arachnoid cysts are developmental malformations that arise from the unexplained splitting or tearing of the arachnoid membrane.[ citation needed ]

In some cases, arachnoid cysts occurring in the middle fossa are accompanied by underdevelopment (hypoplasia) or compression of the temporal lobe. The exact role that temporal lobe abnormalities play in the development of middle fossa arachnoid cysts is unknown.[ citation needed ]

There are some cases where hereditary disorders have been connected with arachnoid cysts. [18]

Some complications of arachnoid cysts can occur when a cyst is damaged because of minor head trauma. [19] Trauma can cause the fluid within a cyst to leak into other areas (e.g., subarachnoid space). Blood vessels on the surface of a cyst may tear and bleed into the cyst (intracystic hemorrhage), increasing its size. If a blood vessel bleeds on the outside of a cyst, a collection of blood (hematoma) may result. In the cases of intracystic hemorrhage and hematoma, the individual may have symptoms of increased pressure within the cranium and signs of compression of nearby nerve (neural) tissue.[ citation needed ]

Some scientists debate whether arachnoid cysts are a true congenite condition or if this should be separated from secondary cysts. [20] A recent study shows differences in communication between the arachnoid cyst and the subarachnoid space by CT cisternography. [21] A comparison of arachnoid cyst fluid and CSF in a series of patients show differences in chemical composition. [22]

Arachnoid cysts can also occur secondary to other disorders such as Marfan syndrome, arachnoiditis, or agenesis of the corpus callosum.[ citation needed ]

Diagnosis

Arachnoid cyst as seen on a CT image of the brain Arachnoid cyst.png
Arachnoid cyst as seen on a CT image of the brain
Axial CT showing a typical arachnoid cyst left temporal Temporale Arachnoidalzyste links CT axial.jpg
Axial CT showing a typical arachnoid cyst left temporal

Diagnosis is principally by MRI. Frequently, arachnoid cysts are incidental findings on MRI scans performed for other clinical reasons. In practice, diagnosis of symptomatic arachnoid cysts requires symptoms to be present, and many with the disorder never develop symptoms.[ citation needed ]

Additional clinical assessment tools that can be useful in evaluating a patient with arachnoid cysts include the mini-mental state examination (MMSE), a brief questionnaire-based test used to assess cognition. [9]

Classification

Arachnoid cysts can be found on the brain or on the spine. Intracranial arachnoid cysts usually occur adjacent to the arachnoidal cistern. [23] Spinal arachnoid cysts may be extradural, intradural, or perineural and tend to present with signs and symptoms indicative of a radiculopathy. [23]

Arachnoid cysts may also be classified as primary (congenital) or secondary (acquired) and have been reported in humans, cats, and dogs. [24]

Arachnoid cysts can be relatively asymptomatic or present with insidious symptoms; for this reason, diagnosis is often delayed.[ citation needed ]

Treatment

Most arachnoid cysts are asymptomatic and do not require treatment. Treatment may be necessary when symptomatic. [2] A variety of procedures may be used to decompress (remove pressure from) the cyst.

Prognosis

Most arachnoid cysts are asymptomatic, and do not require treatment. Where complications are present, leaving arachnoid cysts untreated may cause permanent severe neurological damage due to the progressive expansion of the cyst(s) or hemorrhage (bleeding). [2] However, with treatment most individuals with symptomatic arachnoid cysts do well.[ citation needed ]

More specific prognoses are listed below:

Epidemiology

Arachnoid cysts are seen in up to 1.1% of the population [34] [35] with a gender distribution of 2:1 male:female. [36] Only 20% of these have symptoms, usually from secondary hydrocephalus. [34]

A study that looked at 2,536 healthy young males found a prevalence of 1.7% (95% CI 1.2 to 2.3%). Only a small percentage of the detected abnormalities require urgent medical attention. [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Idiopathic intracranial hypertension</span> Medical condition

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), previously known as pseudotumor cerebri and benign intracranial hypertension, is a condition characterized by increased intracranial pressure without a detectable cause. The main symptoms are headache, vision problems, ringing in the ears, and shoulder pain. Complications may include vision loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syringomyelia</span> Disorder in which a cyst forms in the spinal cord

Syringomyelia is a generic term referring to a disorder in which a cyst or cavity forms within the spinal cord. Often, syringomyelia is used as a generic term before an etiology is determined. This cyst, called a syrinx, can expand and elongate over time, destroying the spinal cord. The damage may result in loss of feeling, paralysis, weakness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, and extremities. Syringomyelia may also cause a loss of the ability to feel extremes of hot or cold, especially in the hands. It may also lead to a cape-like bilateral loss of pain and temperature sensation along the upper chest and arms. The combination of symptoms varies from one patient to another depending on the location of the syrinx within the spinal cord, as well as its extent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Head injury</span> Serious trauma to the cranium

A head injury is any injury that results in trauma to the skull or brain. The terms traumatic brain injury and head injury are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of injuries, there are many causes—including accidents, falls, physical assault, or traffic accidents—that can cause head injuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrocephalus</span> Abnormal increase in cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain

Hydrocephalus is a condition in which an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occurs within the brain. This typically causes increased pressure inside the skull. Older people may have headaches, double vision, poor balance, urinary incontinence, personality changes, or mental impairment. In babies, it may be seen as a rapid increase in head size. Other symptoms may include vomiting, sleepiness, seizures, and downward pointing of the eyes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chiari malformation</span> Medical condition

Chiari malformation (CM) is a structural defect in the cerebellum, characterized by a downward displacement of one or both cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum. CMs can cause headaches, difficulty swallowing, vomiting, dizziness, neck pain, unsteady gait, poor hand coordination, numbness and tingling of the hands and feet, and speech problems. Less often, people may experience ringing or buzzing in the ears, weakness, slow heart rhythm, or fast heart rhythm, curvature of the spine (scoliosis) related to spinal cord impairment, abnormal breathing, such as central sleep apnea, characterized by periods of breathing cessation during sleep, and, in severe cases, paralysis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subdural hematoma</span> Hematoma usually associated with traumatic brain injury

A subdural hematoma (SDH) is a type of bleeding in which a collection of blood—usually but not always associated with a traumatic brain injury—gathers between the inner layer of the dura mater and the arachnoid mater of the meninges surrounding the brain. It usually results from tears in bridging veins that cross the subdural space.

Normal-pressure hydrocephalus (NPH), also called malresorptive hydrocephalus, is a form of communicating hydrocephalus in which excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occurs in the ventricles, and with normal or slightly elevated cerebrospinal fluid pressure. As the fluid builds up, it causes the ventricles to enlarge and the pressure inside the head to increase, compressing surrounding brain tissue and leading to neurological complications. The disease presents in a classic triad of symptoms, which are memory impairment, urinary frequency, and balance problems/gait deviations. The disease was first described by Salomón Hakim and Adams in 1965.

A thunderclap headache is a headache that is severe and has a sudden onset. It is defined as a severe headache that takes seconds to minutes to reach maximum intensity. Although approximately 75% are attributed to "primary" headaches—headache disorder, non-specific headache, idiopathic thunderclap headache, or uncertain headache disorder—the remainder are secondary to other causes, which can include some extremely dangerous acute conditions, as well as infections and other conditions. Usually, further investigations are performed to identify the underlying cause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dandy–Walker malformation</span> Congenital malformation of the cerebellar vermis

Dandy–Walker malformation (DWM), also known as Dandy–Walker syndrome (DWS), is a rare congenital brain malformation in which the part joining the two hemispheres of the cerebellum does not fully form, and the fourth ventricle and space behind the cerebellum are enlarged with cerebrospinal fluid. Most of those affected develop hydrocephalus within the first year of life, which can present as increasing head size, vomiting, excessive sleepiness, irritability, downward deviation of the eyes and seizures. Other, less common symptoms are generally associated with comorbid genetic conditions and can include congenital heart defects, eye abnormalities, intellectual disability, congenital tumours, other brain defects such as agenesis of the corpus callosum, skeletal abnormalities, an occipital encephalocele or underdeveloped genitalia or kidneys. It is sometimes discovered in adolescents or adults due to mental health problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subdural hygroma</span> Collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), without blood, located under the dural membrane

A subdural hygroma (SDG) is a collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), without blood, located under the dural membrane of the brain. Most subdural hygromas are believed to be derived from chronic subdural hematomas. They are commonly seen in elderly people after minor trauma but can also be seen in children following infection or trauma. One of the common causes of subdural hygroma is a sudden decrease in pressure as a result of placing a ventricular shunt. This can lead to leakage of CSF into the subdural space especially in cases with moderate to severe brain atrophy. In these cases the symptoms such as mild fever, headache, drowsiness and confusion can be seen, which are relieved by draining this subdural fluid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colloid cyst</span> Medical condition

A colloid cyst is a non-malignant tumor in the brain. It consists of a gelatinous material contained within a membrane of epithelial tissue. It is almost always found just posterior to the foramen of Monro in the anterior aspect of the third ventricle, originating from the roof of the ventricle. Because of its location, it can cause obstructive hydrocephalus and increased intracranial pressure. Colloid cysts represent 0.5–1.0% of intracranial tumors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebral shunt</span> Surgical implant to treat hydrocephalus

A cerebral shunt is a device permanently implanted inside the head and body to drain excess fluid away from the brain. They are commonly used to treat hydrocephalus, the swelling of the brain due to excess buildup of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). If left unchecked, the excess CSF can lead to an increase in intracranial pressure (ICP), which can cause intracranial hematoma, cerebral edema, crushed brain tissue or herniation. The drainage provided by a shunt can alleviate or prevent these problems in patients with hydrocephalus or related diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limbic encephalitis</span> Inflammation involving the limbic system in the brain

Limbic encephalitis is a form of encephalitis, a disease characterized by inflammation of the brain. Limbic encephalitis is caused by autoimmunity: an abnormal state where the body produces antibodies against itself. Some cases are associated with cancer and some are not. Although the disease is known as "limbic" encephalitis, it is seldom limited to the limbic system and post-mortem studies usually show involvement of other parts of the brain. The disease was first described by Brierley and others in 1960 as a series of three cases. The link to cancer was first noted in 1968 and confirmed by later investigators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis</span> Presence of a blood clot in the dural venous sinuses or cerebral veins

Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST), cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis or cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT), is the presence of a blood clot in the dural venous sinuses, the cerebral veins, or both. Symptoms may include severe headache, visual symptoms, any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness of the face and limbs on one side of the body, and seizures, which occur in around 40% of patients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orthostatic headache</span> Medical condition

Orthostatic headache is a medical condition in which a person develops a headache while vertical and the headache is relieved when horizontal. Previously it was often misdiagnosed as different primary headache disorders such as migraine or tension headaches. Increasing awareness of the symptom and its causes has prevented delayed or missed diagnosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebrospinal fluid leak</span> Medical condition

A cerebrospinal fluid leak is a medical condition where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounding the brain or spinal cord leaks out of one or more holes or tears in the dura mater. A cerebrospinal fluid leak can be either cranial or spinal, and these are two different disorders. A spinal CSF leak can be caused by one or more meningeal diverticula or CSF-venous fistulas not associated with an epidural leak.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central nervous system cyst</span> Medical condition

A central nervous system cyst is a type of cyst that presents and affects part of the central nervous system (CNS). They are usually benign and filled with either cerebrospinal fluid, blood, or tumor cells. CNS cysts are classified into two categories: cysts that originate from non-central nervous system tissue, migrate to, and form on a portion of the CNS, and cysts that originate within central nervous system tissue itself. Within these two categories, there are many types of CNS cysts that have been identified from previous studies.

Bobble-head doll syndrome is a rare neurological movement disorder in which patients, usually children around age 3, begin to bob their head and shoulders forward and back, or sometimes side-to-side, involuntarily, in a manner reminiscent of a bobblehead doll. The syndrome is related to cystic lesions and swelling of the third ventricle in the brain. Symptoms of bobble-head doll syndrome are diverse but can be grouped into two categories: physical and neurological. The most common form of treatment is surgical implanting of a shunt to relieve the swelling of the brain.

Behçet's disease is recognized as a disease that cause inflammatory perivasculitis, inflammation of the tissue around a blood or lymph vessel, in practically any tissue in the body. Usually, prevalent symptoms include canker sores or ulcers in the mouth and on the genitals, and inflammation in parts of the eye. In addition, patients experience severe headache and papulopustular skin lesions as well. The disease was first described in 1937 by a Turkish dermatologist, Dr. Hulusi Behçet. Behçet's disease is most prevalent in the Middle East and the Far East regions; however, it is rare in America regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tarlov cyst</span> Medical condition

Tarlov cysts, are type II innervated meningeal cysts, cerebrospinal-fluid-filled (CSF) sacs most frequently located in the spinal canal of the sacral region of the spinal cord (S1–S5) and much less often in the cervical, thoracic or lumbar spine. They can be distinguished from other meningeal cysts by their nerve-fiber-filled walls. Tarlov cysts are defined as cysts formed within the nerve-root sheath at the dorsal root ganglion. The etiology of these cysts is not well understood; some current theories explaining this phenomenon have not yet been tested or challenged but include increased pressure in CSF, filling of congenital cysts with one-way valves, inflammation in response to trauma and disease. They are named for American neurosurgeon Isadore Tarlov, who described them in 1938.

References

  1. ↑ Ariai S, Koerbel A, Bornemann A, Morgala M, Tatagiba M (2005). "Cerebellopontine angle arachnoid cyst harbouring ectopic neuroglia". Pediatr Neurosurg. 41 (4): 220–3. doi:10.1159/000086566. PMID   16088260. S2CID   34344350.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Arachnoid Cysts Information Page". NINDS . Retrieved April 7, 2017.
  3. ↑ Gelabert-González M (2004). "Intracranial arachnoid cysts". Rev Neurol (in Spanish). 39 (12): 1161–6. PMID   15625636.
  4. 1 2 Barker RA, Scolding N, Rowe D, Larner AJ. The A-Z of Neurological Practice: A Guide to Clinical Neurology Cambridge University Press 2005 Jan 10, p61. ( ISBN   0-521-62960-8)
  5. ↑ Millichap JG (May 1997). "Temporal lobe arachnoid cyst-attention deficit disorder syndrome: role of the electroencephalogram in diagnosis". Neurology. 48 (5): 1435–9. doi:10.1212/wnl.48.5.1435. PMID   9153486. S2CID   28361288.
  6. ↑ Valença MM, Valença LP, Menezes TL (September 2002). "Computed tomography scan of the head in patients with migraine or tension-type headache". Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 60 (3A): 542–7. doi: 10.1590/s0004-282x2002000400005 . PMID   12244387.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. 1 2 Cameron AD. "Psychotic phenomena with migraine and an arachnoid cyst", Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry 2002 Mar-Apr 6(2) http://www.escriber.com/Progress/Features.asp? Action=View&Archive=True&ID=67&GroupID=&Page=11 Archived September 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Griffiths TD (October 2000). "Musical hallucinosis in acquired deafness. Phenomenology and brain substrate". Brain. 123 (10): 2065–76. doi: 10.1093/brain/123.10.2065 . PMID   11004124.
  9. 1 2 Richards G, Lusznat RM. "An arachnoid cyst in a patient with pre-senile dementia", Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry, 2001 May–June;5(3) http://www.escriber.com/Progress/Features.asp? Action=View&Archive=True&ID=29&GroupID=&Page=18 Archived September 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  10. 1 2 Yamakawa H, Ohkuma A, Hattori T, Niikawa S, Kobayashi H (1991). "Primary intracranial arachnoid cyst in the elderly: a survey on 39 cases". Acta Neurochir (Wien). 113 (1–2): 42–7. doi:10.1007/bf01402113. PMID   1799142. S2CID   24540942.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Buongiorno G, Ricca G (September 2003). "Supratentorial arachnoid cyst mimicking a Ménière's disease attack". J Laryngol Otol. 117 (9): 728–30. doi:10.1258/002221503322334602. PMID   14561365. S2CID   26032192.
  12. ↑ Cummings JL, Mega MS. Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Oxford University Press, USA; 2Rev Ed, 2003 Jan 23;208. ( ISBN   0-19-513858-9)
  13. ↑ Alves da Silva J, Alves A, Talina M, Carreiro S, Guimarães J, Xavier M (2007). "Arachnoid cyst in a patient with psychosis: a case report". Annals of General Psychiatry. 6: 16. doi: 10.1186/1744-859x-6-16 . PMC   1933420 . PMID   17598903.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ Vakis AF, Koutentakis DI, Karabetsos DA, Kalostos GN (2006). "Psychosis-like syndrome associated with intermittent intracranial hypertension caused by a large arachnoid cyst of the left temporal lobe". Br J Neurosurg. 20 (3): 156–9. doi:10.1080/02688690600776986. PMID   16801049. S2CID   28934276.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ↑ Blackshaw S, Bowen RC (November 1987). "A case of atypical psychosis associated with alexithymia and a left fronto-temporal lesion: possible correlations". Can J Psychiatry. 32 (8): 688–92. doi:10.1177/070674378703200809. PMID   3690485. S2CID   30229064.
  16. ↑ Cullum CM, Heaton RK, Harris MJ, Jeste DV (October 1994). "Neurobehavioral and neurodiagnostic aspects of late-onset psychosis". Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 9 (5): 371–82. doi:10.1093/arclin/9.5.371. PMID   14589653.
  17. ↑ Heinrichs, RW. In Search of Madness: Schizophrenia and Neuroscience Oxford University Press, USA (March 29, 2001); p129. ( ISBN   0-19-512219-4)
  18. ↑ Schievink WI, Huston J, Torres VE, Marsh WR (December 1995). "Intracranial cysts in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease". J. Neurosurg. 83 (6): 1004–7. doi:10.3171/jns.1995.83.6.1004. PMID   7490613.
  19. ↑ De K, Berry K, Denniston S (July 2002). "Haemorrhage into an arachnoid cyst: a serious complication of minor head trauma". Emerg Med J. 19 (4): 365–6. doi:10.1136/emj.19.4.365. PMC   1725893 . PMID   12101165.
  20. ↑ Westermaier T, Schweitzer T, Ernestus RI (2012). "Arachnoid cysts". Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 724: 37–50. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0653-2_3. ISBN   978-1-4614-0652-5. PMID   22411232.
  21. ↑ Wang X, Chen JX, You C, Jiang S (July 2012). "CT cisternography in intracranial symptomatic arachnoid cysts: classification and treatment". J. Neurol. Sci. 318 (1–2): 125–30. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.008. PMID   22520095. S2CID   36127070.
  22. ↑ Berle M, Wester KG, Ulvik RJ, Kroksveen AC, Haaland OA, Amiry-Moghaddam M, Berven FS, Helland CA (June 2010). "Arachnoid cysts do not contain cerebrospinal fluid: A comparative chemical analysis of arachnoid cyst fluid and cerebrospinal fluid in adults". Cerebrospinal Fluid Res. 7: 8. doi:10.1186/1743-8454-7-8. PMC   2898803 . PMID   20537169.
  23. 1 2 Arachnoid cyst. (n.d.). Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders. Retrieved September 10, 2006, from Answers.com Web site: http://www.answers.com/topic/arachnoid-cyst
  24. ↑ Reed SD, Cho DY, Paulsen D (2009). "Quadrigeminal Arachnoid Cysts in a kitten and a dog". J Vet Diagn Invest. 21 (5): 707–710. doi:10.1177/104063870902100519. PMID   19737770.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Strojnik T (2006). "Different approaches to surgical treatment of arachnoid cysts". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 118 Suppl 2: 85–8. doi:10.1007/s00508-006-0540-2. PMID   16817052. S2CID   45788859.
  26. ↑ Helland CA, Wester K (July 2006). "Arachnoid cysts in adults: long-term follow-up of patients treated with internal shunts to the subdural compartment". Surg Neurol. 66 (1): 56–61, discussion 61. doi:10.1016/j.surneu.2005.12.032. PMID   16793443.
  27. ↑ Park SW, Yoon SH, Cho KH, Shin YS (June 2006). "A large arachnoid cyst of the lateral ventricle extending from the supracerebellar cistern--case report". Surg Neurol. 65 (6): 611–4. doi:10.1016/j.surneu.2005.07.069. PMID   16720186.
  28. ↑ Gangemi M, Colella G, Magro F, Maiuri F (June 2007). "Suprasellar arachnoid cysts: endoscopy versus microsurgical cyst excision and shunting". Br J Neurosurg. 21 (3): 276–80. doi:10.1080/02688690701339197. PMID   17612918. S2CID   46128402.
  29. ↑ Greenfield JP, Souweidane MM (December 2005). "Endoscopic management of intracranial cysts". Neurosurg Focus. 19 (6): E7. doi:10.3171/foc.2005.19.6.8. PMID   16398484.
  30. ↑ Van Beijnum J, Hanlo PW, Han KS, Ludo Van der Pol W, Verdaasdonk RM, Van Nieuwenhuizen O (May 2006). "Navigated laser-assisted endoscopic fenestration of a suprasellar arachnoid cyst in a 2-year-old child with bobble-head doll syndrome. Case report". J. Neurosurg. 104 (5 Suppl): 348–51. doi:10.3171/ped.2006.104.5.348. PMID   16848093. S2CID   35236043.
  31. ↑ Wester K, Hugdahl K (September 1995). "Arachnoid cysts of the left temporal fossa: impaired preoperative cognition and postoperative improvement". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 59 (3): 293–8. doi:10.1136/jnnp.59.3.293. PMC   486033 . PMID   7673959.
  32. ↑ Wester K (August 2008). "Intracranial arachnoid cysts--do they impair mental functions?". J. Neurol. 255 (8): 1113–20. doi:10.1007/s00415-008-0011-y. PMID   18677648. S2CID   792144.
  33. ↑ Kohn R, Lilly RB, Sokol MS, Malloy PF (1989). "Psychiatric presentations of intracranial cysts". J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1 (1): 60–6. doi:10.1176/jnp.1.1.60. PMID   2577719.
  34. 1 2 Flaherty AW. The Massachusetts General Hospital Handbook of Neurology 2000 Jan 1;105. ( ISBN   0-683-30576-X)
  35. ↑ Vernooij MW, Ikram MA, Tanghe HL, Vincent AJ, Hofman A, Krestin GP, Niessen WJ, Breteler MM, van der Lugt A (November 2007). "Incidental findings on brain MRI in the general population". N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (18): 1821–8. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa070972 . PMID   17978290.
  36. ↑ Pradilla G, Jallo G (February 2007). "Arachnoid cysts: case series and review of the literature". Neurosurg Focus. 22 (2): E7. doi: 10.3171/foc.2007.22.2.7 . PMID   17608350.
  37. ↑ Weber F, Knopf H (January 2006). "Incidental findings in magnetic resonance imaging of the brains of healthy young men". J. Neurol. Sci. 240 (1–2): 81–4. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2005.09.008. PMID   16256141. S2CID   27917253.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.