Customs union

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A customs union is generally defined as a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. [1]

Contents

Customs unions are established through trade pacts where the participant countries set up common external trade policy (in some cases they use different import quotas). Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid competition deficiency. [2]

Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. It is the third stage of economic integration.

Every economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union includes a customs union.

WTO definition

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, part of the World Trade Organization framework defines a customs union in the following way: [1]

(a) A customs union shall be understood to mean the substitution of a single customs territory for two or more customs territories, so that

(i) duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce (except, where necessary, those permitted under Articles XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV and XX) are eliminated with respect to substantially all the trade between the constituent territories of the union or at least with respect to substantially all the trade in products originating in such territories, and,

(ii) subject to the provisions of paragraph 9, substantially the same duties and other regulations of commerce are applied by each of the members of the union to the trade of territories not included in the union;

Historical background

The German Customs Union, the Zollverein, which was established in 1834, and gradually developed and expanded, was a customs union organization that appeared earlier and played a role in promoting German economic development and political unification at that time. Before the establishment of the unified German Empire in the 1870s, there were checkpoints between and within the German states, which hindered the development of industry and commerce. In 1818, Prussia took the lead in abolishing the customs duties in the mainland; it was followed by the establishment of the North German Customs Union in 1826. Two years later, two customs unions were established in the states of South Germany. [3]

In 1834, 18 states joined to form the German Customs Union with Prussia as the main leader. Thereafter, this alliance was further expanded to all German-speaking regions[ citation needed ] and became the All-German Customs Union. The contents of the alliance convention included: abolishing internal tariffs, unifying external tariffs, raising import tax rates, and allocating tariff income to all states in the alliance in proportion. In addition, there is a customs union between France and Monaco, which was established in 1865.

A customs union was established by Switzerland and Liechtenstein in 1924, by Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1948, by the countries of the European Economic Community in 1958, and by the Economic Community of Central African States in 1964. At that time, the European Free Trade Association was different from the European Economic Community Customs Union. Free trade within the former was limited to industrial products, and no uniform tariffs were imposed on countries outside the Union. [4] [5]

It was brought into action by the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. Pre- modern conditions ( 30+ currencies, trade barriers etc.) were viewed as an obstacle as obstacles to o economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.

Main feature

The main feature of the Customs Union is that the member countries have not only eliminated trade barriers and implemented free trade, but also established a common external tariff. In other words, in addition to agreeing to eliminate each other's trade barriers, members of the Customs Union also adopt common external tariff and trade policies. [6] GATT stipulates that if the customs union is not established immediately, but is gradually completed over a period of time, it should be completed within a reasonable period, which generally does not exceed 10 years. [3]

Protect measures

The exclusive protection measures of the Customs Union mainly include the following: [7]

Meaning

Economic effects

Economic effects of customs unions can generally be grouped into static effects and dynamic effects. [10]

Static effects

There are trade creation effects and trade diversion effects. The trade creation effect refers to the benefits generated by products from domestic production with higher production costs to the production of customs union countries with lower costs. The trade diversion effect refers to the loss incurred when a product is imported from a non-member country with lower production costs to a member country with a higher cost. This is the price of joining the customs union. When the trade creation effect is greater than the transfer effect, the combined effect of joining the Customs Union on the member countries is net profit, which means an increase in the economic welfare level of the member countries; otherwise, it is a net loss and a decline in the economic welfare level.

The trade creation effect is usually regarded as a positive effect. This is because the domestic production cost of country A is higher than the production cost of country A 's imports from country B. The Customs Union made Country A give up the domestic production of some commodities and change it to Country B to produce these commodities. From a worldwide perspective, this kind of production conversion improves the efficiency of resource allocation. [11]

Dynamic effects

The customs union will not only bring static effects to member states, but also bring some dynamic effects to them. Sometimes, this dynamic effect is more important than its static effect, which has an important impact on the economic growth of member countries. [11]

  1. The first dynamic effect of the customs union is the large market effect (or economies of scale effect). After the establishment of the customs union, good conditions have been created for the mutual export of products between member countries. This expansion of the market has promoted the development of enterprise production, allowing producers to continuously expand production scale, reduce costs, enjoy the benefits of economies of scale, and can further enhance the externality of enterprises within the alliance, especially for non-member companies competitive power. Therefore, the large market effect created by the Customs Union has triggered the realization of economies of scale.
  2. The establishment of the Customs Union has promoted competition among enterprises among member countries. Before the member states formed a customs union, many sectors had formed domestic monopolies, and several enterprises had occupied the domestic market for a long time and obtained excessive monopoly profits. Therefore, it is not conducive to the resource allocation and technological progress of various countries. After the formation of the customs union, due to the mutual openness of the markets of various countries, enterprises of various countries face competition from similar enterprises in other member countries. As a result, in order to gain a favorable position in the competition, enterprises will inevitably increase research and development investment and continuously reduce production costs, thereby creating a strong competitive atmosphere within the alliance, improving economic efficiency, and promoting technological progress. [12]
  3. The establishment of a customs union helps to attract external investment. The establishment of a customs union implies the exclusion of products from non-members. In order to counteract such adverse effects, countries outside the alliance may transfer enterprises to some countries within the customs union to directly produce and sell locally in order to bypass uniform tariff and non-tariff barriers. This objectively generates capital inflows that accompany the transfer of production, attracting large amounts of foreign direct investment.

Lists of customs unions

.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} European Union Customs Union Eurasian Customs Union East African Community West African Economic and Monetary Union Southern African Customs Union Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa Mercosur Andean Community Caribbean Community Central American Common Market Gulf Cooperation Council Switzerland-Liechtenstein United Kingdom-Crown Dependencies Customs Union World Customs Unions.svg
   Mercosur
  Switzerland–Liechtenstein

Current

AgreementDate (in force)Recent reference
Flag of the Andean Community of Nations.svg Andean Community (CAN)1988-05-25L/6737
Flag of CARICOM.svg Caribbean Community (CARICOM)1991-01-01
Flag of the Central American Integration System.svg Central American Common Market (CACM)2004-10-06 WT/REG93/R/B/2
Flag of the African Union.svg Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)2005-01-01 [13]
Flag of the East African Community.svg East African Community (EAC)2005-01-01 [14] WT/COMTD/N/14
Flag of the African Union.svg Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC)1999-06-01 [15]
Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union.svg Eurasian Customs Union (EACU)2010-07-01 [16]
Flag of the European Union.svg European Union Customs Union (EUCU; EU–Monaco)1958
 ∟Flag of the European Union.svgFlag of Andorra.svg EU–Andorra Customs Union1991-07-01 WT/REG53/M/3
 ∟Flag of the European Union.svgFlag of San Marino.svg EU–San Marino Customs Union2002-04-01
 ∟Flag of the European Union.svgFlag of Turkey.svg EU–Turkey Customs Union 1996-01-01 WT/REG22/M/4
Flag of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf.svg Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)2015-01-01 [17] [18] [19]
Flag of Israel.svgFlag of Palestine.svg Israel–Palestinian Authority 1994 [20] [21] [22]
Flag of Mercosur.svg Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)1991-11-29 WT/COMTD/1/Add.17
Southern African Customs Union (SACU)1910 [23] WT/REG231/3
Flag of Switzerland.svgFlag of Liechtenstein.svg Switzerland–Liechtenstein (CH-FL)1924 [24]
West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU)1994-01-10 WT/COMTD/N/11/Add.1
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union

(UK-CD)

2018-11-26 [25] [26] UK CD CU

Additionally, the autonomous and dependent territories such as some of the EU member state special territories are sometimes treated as separate customs territories from their mainland states or have varying arrangements of formal or de facto customs union, common market and currency union (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries through the trade pacts signed by the mainland state. [27]

The European Union is a customs union and therefore sets a common external tariff.

Proposed

Defunct

Further reading

See also

Related Research Articles

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A tariff is a tax imposed by the government of a country or by a supranational union on imports or exports of goods. Besides being a source of revenue for the government, import duties can also be a form of regulation of foreign trade and policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry. Protective tariffs are among the most widely used instruments of protectionism, along with import quotas and export quotas and other non-tariff barriers to trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trade agreement</span> Wide ranging taxes, tariff and trade treaty

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<i>Zollverein</i> Economic union of German states (1834–1919)

The Zollverein, or German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organized by the 1833 Zollverein treaties, it formally started on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of custom unions among the German states. By 1866, the Zollverein included most of the German states. The Zollverein was not part of the German Confederation (1815-1866).

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Trade creation is an economic term related to international economics in which trade flows are redirected due to the formation of a free trade area or a customs union. The issue was firstly brought into discussion by Jacob Viner (1950), together with the trade diversion effect.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Union Customs Union</span> EUs common customs area

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The Steuerverein was formed in 1834 as a customs union first of the Duchy of Brunswick and the Kingdom of Hanover and then with the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg in 1836. Hanover joined the Deutscher Zollverein in 1854, after negotiating advantageous conditions with Prussia.

The accession of the city state of Hamburg to the German Customs Union, commonly known as Zollverein, in 1888 was the culmination of a project for the economic and monetary union of Germany, stretching back to 1819. In that year Schwarzburg-Sondershausen joined Prussia’s internal customs union, the first other state to do so and the first of many to follow.

References

  1. 1 2 GATT, Article 24, s. 8 (a)
  2. ↑ Winters, Alan L (1991). International Economics, Volume IV. Routledge. pp. 528 pages. ISBN   9780203028384.
  3. 1 2 Flaherty, Jane (2018). "Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America by William K. Bolt". Journal of Southern History. 84 (4): 981–982. doi:10.1353/soh.2018.0262. ISSN   2325-6893. S2CID   158847890.
  4. ↑ "Discussion". Brookings Trade Forum. 2002 (1): 227–230. 2002. doi:10.1353/btf.2003.0003. ISSN   1534-0635.
  5. ↑ Chang, Ha-Joon (2013). "Industrial Policy: Can Africa do It?". The Industrial Policy Revolution II. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 114–132. doi:10.1057/9781137335234_5. ISBN   978-1-137-37450-9.
  6. ↑ "Free Trade". IGM Forum. 13 March 2012.
  7. ↑ Simonova, Aleksandra (2019). "Hackerspaces and Technoparks in Moscow". From Russia with Code. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9781478003342-007. ISBN   978-1-4780-0334-2. S2CID   201508480.
  8. ↑ Diamond, Peter A.; Mirrlees, James A. (2002). "Optimal Taxation and The Le Chatelier Principle". SSRN Working Paper Series. doi:10.2139/ssrn.331300. hdl: 1721.1/63998 . ISSN   1556-5068. S2CID   153968075. SSRN   331300.
  9. ↑ Krugman, Paul R. (2005). Microeconomics. Wells, Robin, 1959-. New York: Worth. ISBN   0-7167-5229-8. OCLC   58043929.
  10. ↑ "Implications of static and dynamic effects of economic integration for investment inflows and outflows using theories on industrial location: A theoretical debate – Nova Science Publishers". 10 July 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  11. 1 2 Smirnov, Valery (29 March 2019). Management of Food Import Substitution in Russia. International Scientific Conference "Social and Cultural Transformations in the Context of Modern Globalism". The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences. Cognitive-Crcs. pp. 805–811. doi: 10.15405/epsbs.2019.03.02.92 .
  12. ↑ Krugman, Paul; Wells, Robin (2017). Volkswirtschaftslehre. Schäffer-Poeschel. doi:10.34156/9783791039237. ISBN   978-3-7910-3923-7.
  13. ↑ Signed 1993-11-5, but entered into force in 1994-12-8.
  14. ↑ Signed 2000-7-7, but implemented in 2005.
  15. ↑ Signed 1994-05-16, but implemented in 1999.
  16. ↑ Customs Union of Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) envisioned in its 1997-10-08 agreement, but not implemented. WT/REG71/8 Archived 5 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ↑ Agreed on 2003-01-01, WT/COMTD/N/25 Archived 5 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ↑ "GCC countries postpone customs union move".
  19. ↑ "GCC customs union fully operational". The Peninsula. 3 January 2015. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  20. ↑ Established following the Oslo Accords and the Paris protocol.
  21. ↑ Paris Protocol. B'Tselem, 19 September 2012
  22. ↑ Iqtisadi: The Israeli-Palestinian Economic Agreement and Current Consequences Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Ephraim Lavie, Moshe Dayan Center–Tel Aviv University, January 2013
  23. ↑ latest revision is from 2004-07-15.
  24. 1 2 Marxer, Roland (31 December 2011). "Zollanschlussvertrag". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  25. ↑ "Brexit: the impact of the end of the Transition Period on Guernsey and Jersey". Carey Olsen . 18 January 2021. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021.
  26. ↑ Sweet, Pat (27 November 2018). ""UK agrees customs arrangements with crown dependencies"." Accountancy Daily. Archived from the original on 8 October 2020.
  27. ↑ EU Overseas countries and some other territories participate partially in the EU single market per part four of the Treaty Establishing the European Community Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine ; some EU Outermost Regions and other territories use the Euro of the currency union, others are part of the customs union; some participate in both unions and some in neither. Territories of the United States, Australian External Territories and Realm of New Zealand territories share the currency and mostly also the market of their respective mainland state, but are generally not part of its customs territory.
  28. ↑ "Leaders set to approve Arab customs union". Gulf Daily News . 18 January 2009. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
  29. ↑ "Lebanon – FOREIGN RELATIONS".
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