Entoloma sinuatum

Last updated
Entoloma sinuatum
Entoloma sinuatum group.JPG
E. sinuatum, Piacenza's Appennino, Italy
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Entolomataceae
Genus: Entoloma
Species:
E. sinuatum
Binomial name
Entoloma sinuatum
(Pers.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Synonyms [1]
Entoloma sinuatum
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svg Cap is convex
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is pink
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Poison.pngEdibility is poisonous

Entoloma sinuatum (commonly known as the livid entoloma, livid agaric, livid pinkgill, [2] [3] [4] leaden entoloma, and lead poisoner) is a poisonous mushroom found across Europe and North America. Some guidebooks refer to it by its older scientific names of Entoloma lividum or Rhodophyllus sinuatus. The largest mushroom of the genus of pink-spored fungi known as Entoloma , it is also the type species. Appearing in late summer and autumn, fruit bodies are found in deciduous woodlands on clay or chalky soils, or nearby parklands, sometimes in the form of fairy rings. Solid in shape, they resemble members of the genus Tricholoma . The ivory to light grey-brown cap is up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across with a margin that is rolled inward. The sinuate gills are pale and often yellowish, becoming pink as the spores develop. The thick whitish stem has no ring.

Contents

When young, it may be mistaken for the edible St George's mushroom ( Calocybe gambosa ) or the miller ( Clitopilus prunulus ). It has been responsible for many cases of mushroom poisoning in Europe. E. sinuatum causes primarily gastrointestinal problems that, though not generally life-threatening, have been described as highly unpleasant. Delirium and depression are uncommon sequelae. It is generally not considered to be lethal, although one source has reported deaths from the consumption of this mushroom. [5]

Name and relationships

Bulliard's original illustration of Agaricus lividus from his 1788 Champignon de la France, which has been found to be a depiction of Pluteus cervinus. Entoloma sinuatum by Bulliard 1788 plate 382.jpg
Bulliard's original illustration of Agaricus lividus from his 1788 Champignon de la France, which has been found to be a depiction of Pluteus cervinus .

The saga of this species' name begins in 1788 with the publication of part 8 of Jean Baptiste Bulliard's Herbier de la France. In it was plate 382, representing a mushroom which he called Agaricus lividus. [7] In 1872, Lucien Quélet took up a species which he called " Entoloma lividus Bull."; [8] [9] although all subsequent agree that this is a fairly clear reference to Bulliard's name, Quélet gave a description that is generally considered to be that of a different species from Bulliard's. [6] [9] In the meantime, 1801 had seen the description of Agaricus sinuatus by Christian Persoon in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum . [10] He based that name on another plate (number 579) published in the last part of Bulliard's work, and which the latter had labelled "agaric sinué". [note 1] German mycologist Paul Kummer reclassified it as Entoloma sinuatum in 1871. [11]

For many years Quélet's name and description were treated as valid because Bulliard's name antedated Persoon's. However, in 1950, a change in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (termed the Stockholm Code, after the city where the International Botanical Congress was being held) caused only names on fungi published after 1801 or 1821 (depending on their type) to be valid. [12] This meant that suddenly Bulliard's name was no longer a valid name, and now it was Persoon's name that had priority. Nonetheless, it was a well-known name, and the already chaotic situation caused by a change to a famous Latin name was further complicated by another of Quélet's suggestions. He had in 1886 proposed a new, broader genus that included all pink-gilled fungi with adnate or sinuate gills and angular spores: Rhodophyllus. [13] These two approach to genus placement, using either Rhodophyllus or Entoloma, coexisted for many decades, with mycologists and guidebooks following either; [14] Henri Romagnesi, who studied the genus for over forty years, favoured Rhodophyllus, as initially did Rolf Singer. [14] However, most other authorities have tended to favor Entoloma, [15] and Singer conceded the name was far more widely used and adopted it for his Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy text in 1986. [16]

In the meantime, it had been widely accepted that the 1950 change to the Stockholm Code caused more problems than they solved, and in 1981, the Sydney Code reinstated the validity of pre-1801 names, but created the status of sanctioned name for those used in the foundational works of Persoon and Elias Magnus Fries. [12] Thus Entoloma sinuatum, which Fries had sanctioned, [17] still had to be used for the species described by Quélet even though Bulliard's name was the older one. At about the same time, Machiel Noordeloos re-examined Bulliard's name in more details, and discovered that not only was it illegitimate (and thus not available for use) because William Hudson had already used it ten years earlier for a different species, but Bulliard's illustration was clearly not an Entoloma, but a species of Pluteus , [note 2] a genus that is only distantly related to Entoloma. [9] As this made Quélet's name definitely unusable for the Entoloma, and because at the time he and Romagnesi [18] believed there were ground to treat Quélet's "E. lividum" and Persoon's E. sinuatum as separate species, he had to coin a third name for Quélet's species: Entoloma eulividum. [9] [19] He however later changed his mind on this issue, combining again his own Entoloma eulividum and E. sinuatum, so that Persoon's name is now universally recognised. [15] [20] Because it was previously widely used and Quélet had provided a good description and illustration (which, the proposer argued, was better considered as a new species rather than a mere placement of Bulliard's name in another genus), [9] a proposal was made in 1999 to conserve Entoloma lividum and thus restore its use. [6] However, it failed because E. sinuatum had already been in use (if not universally) for many years and was thus a well-known name for the species. [21]

E. sinuatum

E. sp. 1 [note 3]

E. sordidulum

E. politum

E. rhodopolium

E. caccabus

E. sericatum

E. myrmecophilum

Cladogram showing the phylogenetic relationships of E. sinuatum and closely related fungi in the Rhodopolioid clade. [22]

The specific epithet sinuatum is the Latin for "wavy", referring to the shape of the cap, while the generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words entos/ἐντός "inner" and lóma/λῶμα "fringe" or "hem" from the inrolled margin. [23] The specific epithet lividum was derived from the Latin word līvǐdus "lead-coloured". [24] The various common names include livid entoloma, livid agaric, livid pinkgill, leaden entoloma, lead poisoner, [25] and grey pinkgill. [26] In the Dijon region of France it was known as le grand empoisonneur de la Côte-d'Or ("the great poisoner of Côte d'Or"). [27] Quélet himself, who was poisoned by the fungus, called it the miller's purge, akin to another common name of false miller. [28]

Within the large genus Entoloma, which contains around 1500 species, E. sinuatum has been classically placed in the section Entoloma within the subgenus Entoloma, [29] as it is the type species of the genus. [16] A 2009 study analyzing DNA sequences and spore morphology found it to lie in a rhodopolioid clade with (among other species) E. sordidulum , E. politum and E. rhodopolium , and most closely related to E. sp. 1. [note 3] This rhodopolioid clade lay within a crown Entoloma clade. [22]

Description

The gills of mature mushrooms darken to pink and then red. Entoloma sinuatum 40542.jpg
The gills of mature mushrooms darken to pink and then red.

The largest member of its genus, [23] Entoloma sinuatum has an imposing epigeous (aboveground) fruiting body (basidiocarp), bearing a cap 6–20 cm (2+1⁄2–6 in) wide, though diameters of 30 cm (12 in) have been recorded. [30] It is convex to flat, often with a blunt umbo in its centre and wavy margins, ivory white to light grey-brown in color, and darkening with age. The distant gills are sinuate (notched at their point of attachment to the stipe) to almost free, generally (but not always) yellowish white before darkening to pink and then red. Interspersed between the gills are lamellulae (short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stipe). [31] When viewed from beneath, a characteristic groove colloquially known as a "moat" can be seen in the gill pattern circumnavigating the stalk. [30] The form lacking yellow color on the gills is rare but widespread, and has been recorded from Austria, France and the Netherlands. [32]

The stout white stipe lacks a ring and is anywhere from 4 to 20 cm (1.6 to 7.9 in) high, and 0.5–4 cm (0.20–1.57 in) in diameter. It may be bulbous at the base. The taste is mild, although it may be unpleasant. The mushroom's strong and unusual odor can be hard to describe; it may smell of flour, though is often unpleasant and rancid. The spore print is reddish-brown, with angular spores 8–11 × 7–9.5  μm, roughly six-sided and globular in shape. The basidia are four-spored and clamped. The gill edge is fertile, and cystidia are absent. [33]

Similar species

Clitopilus prunulus - Lindsey.jpg
Calocybe gambosa 950.jpg
Lookalike species include Clitopilus prunulus (left) and Calocybe gambosa (right)

Confusion with the highly regarded miller or sweetbread mushroom ( Clitopilus prunulus ) is a common cause of poisoning in France; the latter fungus has a greyish -white downy cap and whitish decurrent gills which turn pink with maturity. [28] Young fruit bodies of Entoloma sinuatum can also be confused with St George's mushroom ( Calocybe gambosa ), [23] although the gills of the latter are crowded and cream in color, and the clouded agaric ( Clitocybe nebularis ), which has whitish decurrent gills and an unusual, starchy, rancid or rancid starch odor. [30] To complicate matters, it often grows near these edible species. [34] Its overall size and shape resemble members of the genus Tricholoma , although the spore color (white in Tricholoma, pinkish in Entoloma) and shape (angular in Entoloma) help distinguish it. [35] The rare and edible all-white dovelike tricholoma ( T. columbetta ) has a satiny cap and stem and a faint, not mealy, odor. [28] E. sinuatum may be confused with Clitocybe multiceps in the Pacific Northwest of North America, although the latter has white spores and generally grows in clumps. [35] A casual observer may mistake it for an edible field mushroom ( Agaricus campestris ), [27] but this species has a ring on the stipe, pink gills that become chocolate-brown in maturity, and a dark brown spore print. [36] The poorly known North American species E. albidum resembles E. sinuatum but is likewise poisonous. [35]

Distribution and habitat

Entoloma sinuatum is fairly common and widespread across North America [35] as far south as Arizona. [37] It also occurs throughout Europe and including Ireland and Britain, [38] though it is more common in southern and central parts of Europe than the northwest. [33] In Asia, it has been recorded in the Black Sea region, [39] the Adıyaman Province in Turkey, [40] Iran, [41] and northern Yunnan in China. [42]

The fruit bodies of E. sinuatum grow solitarily or in groups, [35] and have been found forming fairy rings. [34] Fruit bodies appear mainly in autumn, and also in summer in North America, [35] while in Europe the season is reported as late summer and autumn. [33] They are found in deciduous woodlands under oak, beech, and less commonly birch, often on clay or calcareous (chalky) soils, [33] but they may spread to in parks, fields and grassy areas nearby. [34] Most members of the genus are saprotrophic, [43] although this species has been recorded as forming an ectomycorrhizal relationship with willow ( Salix ). [44]

Toxicity

This fungus has been cited as being responsible for 10% of all mushroom poisonings in Europe. [45] For example, 70 people required hospital treatment in Geneva alone in 1983, [46] and the fungus accounted for 33 of 145 cases of mushroom poisoning in a five-year period at a single hospital in Parma. [47] Poisoning is said to be mainly gastrointestinal in nature; symptoms of diarrhea, vomiting and headache occur 30 minutes to 2 hours after consumption and last for up to 48 hours. Acute liver toxicity and psychiatric symptoms like mood disturbance or delirium may occur. Rarely, symptoms of depression may last for months. [48] At least one source reports there have been fatalities in adults and children. [49] Hospital treatment of poisoning by this mushroom is usually supportive; antispasmodic medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin. Intravenous fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive, especially with children and the elderly. [50] Metoclopramide may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting once gastric contents are emptied. [51] The identity of the toxin(s) is unknown, but chemical analysis has established that there are alkaloids present in the mushroom. [52]

A study of trace elements in mushrooms in the eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey found E. sinuatum to have the highest levels of copper (64.8 ± 5.9 μg/g dried material—insufficient to be toxic) and zinc (198 μg/g) recorded. [53] Caps and stalks tested in an area with high levels of mercury in southeastern Poland showed it to bioaccumulate much higher levels of mercury than other fungi. The element was also found in high levels in the humus-rich substrate. [54] Entoloma sinuatum also accumulates arsenic-containing compounds. Of the roughly 40 μg of arsenic present per gram of fresh mushroom tissue, about 8% was arsenite and the other 92% was arsenate. [55]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Which means that under the modern principles of nomenclature, Persoon, not Bulliard, is the first to have used the name, since only names in Latin can be considered.
  2. ↑ It is now generally accepted the species in question is Pluteus cervinus .
  3. 1 2 Initially presumed to be Entoloma prunuloides but later found to be distinct from that taxon. [22]

Related Research Articles

<i>Entoloma</i> Genus of fungi

Entoloma is a genus of fungi in the order Agaricales. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps are typically agaricoid, though a minority are gasteroid. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. The genus is large, with almost 2000 species worldwide. Most species are saprotrophic, but some are ectomycorrhizal, and a few are parasitic on other fungi. The type, Entoloma sinuatum, is one of several Entoloma species that are poisonous, typically causing mild to severe gastrointestinal illness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entolomataceae</span> Family of fungi

The Entolomataceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. The family contains eight genera and 2250 species, the majority of which are in Entoloma. Basidiocarps are typically agaricoid, but a minority are cyphelloid. secotioid, or gasteroid. All produce pink basidiospores that are variously angular (polyhedral), ridged, or nodulose. Species are mostly saprotrophic, though a few are parasitic on other fungi. The family occurs worldwide.

<i>Tricholoma pardinum</i> Species of agaric fungus endemic to North America, Europe, and parts of Asia

Tricholoma pardinum, commonly known as spotted tricholoma, tiger tricholoma, tigertop, leopard knight, or dirty trich, is a gilled mushroom widely distributed across North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. It is generally found in beech woodland in summer and autumn. Two subspecies have been described from southern Europe. First officially described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801, T. pardinum has had a confusing taxonomic history that extends over two centuries. In 1762, German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the species Agaricus tigrinus with an illustration corresponding to what is thought to be T. pardinum, and consequently, the name Tricholoma tigrinum has been used erroneously in some European field guides.

<i>Leptonia</i> Genus of fungi


Leptonia is a genus of fungi in the order Agaricales, frequently treated as a subgenus of Entoloma. Called pinkgills in English, basidiocarps are agaricoid, mostly mycenoid with slender stems. All have salmon-pink basidiospores which colour the gills at maturity and are angular (polyhedral) under a microscope. Recent DNA evidence has shown that at least 12 species belong in Leptonia in temperate Europe and Asia.

<i>Entoloma rhodopolium</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma rhodopolium, commonly known as the wood pinkgill, is a poisonous mushroom found in Europe and Asia. In fact, it is one of the three most commonly implicated fungi in cases of mushroom poisoning in Japan. E. rhodopolium is often mistaken for edible mushroom, E. sarcopum. Symptoms are predominantly gastrointestinal in nature, though muscarine, muscaridine, and choline have been isolated as toxic agents.

<i>Entoloma hochstetteri</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma hochstetteri, also known as the blue pinkgill, sky-blue mushroom or similar names, is a species of mushroom that is native to New Zealand. The small mushroom is a distinctive all-blue colour, while the gills have a slight reddish tint from the spores. The blue colouring of the fruit body is due to azulene pigments. Whether Entoloma hochstetteri is poisonous or not is unknown.

<i>Stropharia aeruginosa</i> Species of fungus

Stropharia aeruginosa, commonly known as the blue-green stropharia, or verdigris agaric, is a medium-sized green, slimy woodland mushroom, found on lawns, mulch and woodland from spring to autumn. The edibility of this mushroom is controversial - some sources claim that it is edible, while others claim it to be poisonous, although effects are little known and its toxic constituents undescribed.

<i>Ampulloclitocybe clavipes</i> Species of fungus

Ampulloclitocybe clavipes, commonly known as the club-foot or club-footed clitocybe, is a species of gilled mushroom from Europe and North America. The grey brown mushrooms have yellowish decurrent gills and a bulbous stalk, and are found in deciduous and conifer woodlands. Although considered edible, disulfiram-like reactions have been reported after consumption of alcohol after eating this mushroom.

<i>Entoloma rodwayi</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma rodwayi, known as the green stem pinkgill, is a species of fungus in the Entolomataceae family of mushrooms. A yellowish green mushroom with pink gills and spores, it is found in wet forests of Tasmania.

<i>Entoloma austroprunicolor</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma austroprunicolor is a species of agaric fungus in the family Entolomataceae. Described as new to science in 2007, it is found in Tasmania, where it fruits on the ground of wet sclerophyll forests in late spring to early winter. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) have reddish-purple caps measuring up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter supported by whitish stipes measuring 3–7.5 cm (1.2–3.0 in) long by 0.2–0.6 cm (0.1–0.2 in) thick. On the cap underside, the crowded gills are initially white before turning pink as the spores mature.

<i>Tricholoma columbetta</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma columbetta, commonly known as dove-coloured tricholoma, is an edible mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in Europe, where it is eaten in France.

<i>Infundibulicybe geotropa</i> Species of fungus

Infundibulicybe geotropa, also known as the trooping funnel or monk's head, is a funnel-shaped toadstool widely found in Europe and in North America. A large sturdy cream- or buff-coloured funnel-shaped mushroom, it grows in mixed woodlands, often in troops or fairy rings, one of which is over half a mile wide. Although edible, it could be confused with some poisonous species of similar colouration and size.

<i>Entoloma bloxamii</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma bloxamii, commonly known as the midnight blue entoloma, or big blue pinkgill, is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma bloxamii has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma medianox. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Big Blue Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma murrayi</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma murrayi, commonly known as the yellow unicorn Entoloma or the unicorn pinkgill, is a species of fungus in the Entolomataceae family. First described from New England (USA) in 1859, the species is found in eastern North America, Central and South America, and southeast Asia, where it grows on the ground in wet coniferous and deciduous forests. The fungus produces yellow mushrooms that have a characteristic sharp umbo on the top of a conical cap. The mushroom is inedible and may be poisonous. Other similar species can be distinguished from E. murrayi by differences in color, morphology, or microscopic characteristics.

<i>Entoloma mathinnae</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma mathinnae is a species of agaric fungus in the family Entolomataceae. Known only from Tasmania, Australia, it was described as new to science in 2009. Mushrooms have light yellow-brown, convex caps up to 8 cm (3.1 in) wide atop stems measuring 5–8.5 cm (2.0–3.3 in) long.

<i>Tricholoma ustale</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma ustale, commonly known as the burnt knight, is a species of mushroom in the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in Asia, Europe, and North America, though those from North America may represent one or more different species.

<i>Tricholoma fulvum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma fulvum is a mushroom of the agaric genus Tricholoma. One guide reports that the species is inedible, while another says the fruit bodies are edible.

<i>Entoloma porphyrophaeum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma porphyrophaeum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Lilac Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Entoloma porphyrophaeum has been reported from North America, but at least some of these reports represent a distinct species, Entoloma canadense. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Lilac Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma prunuloides</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma prunuloides is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Mealy Pinkgill, based on its distinctive smell. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Mealy Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

<i>Entoloma griseocyaneum</i> Species of fungus

Entoloma griseocyaneum is a species of agaric in the family Entolomataceae. It has been given the recommended English name of Felted Pinkgill. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the Felted Pinkgill being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

References

  1. ↑ "Entoloma sinuatum (Bull.) P. Kumm". Species Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
  2. ↑ "Entoloma sinuatum · livid pinkgill". The British Mycological Society. Archived from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  3. ↑ "Entoloma sinuatum · livid pinkgill". NBN Atlas. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  4. ↑ "Entoloma sinuatum (Pers.) P. Kumm. - Livid Pinkgill". First Nature. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  5. ↑ Joseph F. Ammirati (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Minnesota Press. p. 81. ISBN   9780816614073.
  6. 1 2 3 Redeuilh, Guy (1999). "Proposal to conserve the name Entoloma lividum (Fungi, Agaricales) against three earlier synonyms". Taxon. 48 (1): 145–46. doi:10.2307/1224635. JSTOR   1224635.
  7. ↑ Bulliard, Pierre (1782). Herbier de la France (in French). Vol. 8. Paris: Chez l'auteur, Didot, Debure, Belin. p. plate 382.
  8. ↑ (in Latin) Quélet, Lucien (1872). "Les Champignons du Jura et des Vosges". Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation de Montbéliard. 2 (in French). 5: 116.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Redeuilh, Guy (1995). "Etude préliminaire en vue de la conservation d'Entoloma lividum Quél". Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France (in French). 111 (3): 155–68.
  10. ↑ Persoon, Christian H. (1801). Synopsis Methodica Fungorum (in Latin). Gottingen, Sweden: Apud H. Dieterich. p. 329.
  11. ↑ Kummer, Paul (1871). Der Führer in die Pilzkunde (in German) (1st ed.). Zerbst, Germany: Luppe. p. 98.
  12. 1 2 Korf, Richard P. (1981). "Citation of Authors' Names and the Typification of Names of Fungal Taxa Published between 1753 and 1832 under the Changes in the Code of Nomenclature Enacted in 1981". Mycologia. 74 (2): 250–5. doi:10.2307/3792891. JSTOR   3792891.
  13. ↑ Quélet L. (1886). Enchiridion Fungorum in Europa media et praesertim in Gallia Vigentium. p. 57.
  14. 1 2 Singer, Rolf (1975). Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy. Vaduz: AR Gantner Verlag KG. pp. 672–73. ISBN   3-7682-0143-0.
  15. 1 2 Noordeloos, Fungi Europaei, p. 13.
  16. 1 2 Singer, Rolf (1986). Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy. Vaduz: Koeltz. p. 705. ISBN   3-87429-254-1.
  17. ↑ Fries, Elias Magnus (1821). Systema Mycologicum, volume 1. Lund: Officina Berlingiana. p.  197.
  18. ↑ Romagnesi, Henri (1978). "Quelques Espèces Méconnues ou Nouvelles de Macromycètes. IV". Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France (in French). 94 (2): 97–108.
  19. ↑ Noordeloos, Machiel E. (1985). "Notulae ad floram Agaricinam Neerlandicam X-XI. Entoloma". Persoonia. 12 (4): 457–62.
  20. ↑ Breitenbach, Joseph; Kränzlin, Fred (1991). Fungi of Switzerland 4: Agarics, 2nd Part. Lucerne: Verlag Mykologia Lucerne. p. 104. ISBN   3-85604-240-7.
  21. ↑ Gams, Walter (2001). "Report of the Committee for Fungi: 9". Taxon. 50 (1): 269–72. doi:10.2307/1224527. JSTOR   1224527.
  22. 1 2 3 Co-David, Delia; Langeveld, Dorien; Noordeloos, Machiel E. (2009). "Molecular phylogeny and spore evolution of Entolomataceae" (PDF). Persoonia. 23: 147–76. doi:10.3767/003158509X480944. PMC   2802732 . PMID   20198166. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24.
  23. 1 2 3 Nilson, Sven; Persson, Olle (1977). Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi. Penguin. p. 98. ISBN   0-14-063006-6.
  24. ↑ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 349. ISBN   0-304-52257-0.
  25. ↑ Foster, Steven; Caras, Roger A. (1994). A Field Guide to Venomous Animals and Poisonous Plants, North America . Houghton Mifflin Field Guides. p.  212. ISBN   0-395-93608-X.
  26. ↑ McKnight, Vera B.; McKnight, Kent H. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 311. ISBN   0-395-91090-0.
  27. 1 2 Ramsbottom, John (1953). Mushrooms & Toadstools. London: Collins. p. 53. ISBN   1-870630-09-2.
  28. 1 2 3 Lamaison, Jean-Louis; Polese, Jean-Marie (2005). The Great Encyclopedia of Mushrooms. Königswinter, Germany: Könemann. p. 116. ISBN   3-8331-1239-5.
  29. ↑ Noordeloos, Fungi Europaei, p. 72.
  30. 1 2 3 Haas, Hans (1969). The Young Specialist looks at Fungi. London: Burke. p. 126. ISBN   0-222-79409-7.
  31. ↑ Bresinsky, Andreas; Besl, Helmut (1989). A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: a Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists. London: Manson Publishing Ltd. pp. 138–39. ISBN   0-7234-1576-5.
  32. ↑ Noordeloos, Fungi Europaei, p. 114.
  33. 1 2 3 4 Noordeloos, Fungi Europaei, pp. 111–13.
  34. 1 2 3 Zeitlmayr, Linus (1976). Wild Mushrooms: An Illustrated Handbook. Hertfordshire, UK: Garden City Press. p. 80. ISBN   0-584-10324-7.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ammirati, Joseph F.; Traquair, James A.; Horgen, Paul A. (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 313–15. ISBN   0-8166-1407-5.
  36. ↑ Miller, Hope H.; Miller, Orson K. (2006). North American Mushrooms: a Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. p. 283. ISBN   0-7627-3109-5.
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  42. ↑ Horak, Egon (1987). "Agaricales from Yunnan China I". Nippon Kingakukai Kaiho. 28 (2): 171–88. ISSN   0029-0289.
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  54. ↑ Falandysz, Jerzy (2002). "Mercury in mushrooms and soil of the Tarnobrzeska Plain, south-eastern Poland". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 37 (3): 343–52. doi:10.1081/ESE-120002833. PMID   11929073. S2CID   24124204.
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