Ficus maxima

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Ficus maxima
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Ficus
Subgenus: F. subg. Pharmacosycea
Species:
F. maxima
Binomial name
Ficus maxima
Synonyms [2]

Ficus bopianaRusby
Ficus chaconianaStandl. & L.O. Williams
Ficus citrifoliaLam.
Ficus coybanaMiq.
Ficus glaucescens(Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus guadalajaranaS.Watson
Ficus guapoiHassl.
Ficus hernandezii(Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus mexicana(Miq.) Miq.
Ficus murilloiDugand
Ficus murilloi var cajambrensisDugand
Ficus myxaefoliaKunth & Bouché
Ficus parkeriMiq.
Ficus picardaeWarb.
Ficus plumieriUrb.
Ficus protensa(Griseb.) Hemsl.
Ficus pseudoradula(Miq.) Miq.
Ficus radulaHumb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Ficus rubricostaWarb.
Ficus sodiroiRossberg
Ficus subscabridaWarb.
Ficus suffocansBanks ex Griseb.
Ficus uleiRossberg
Ficus vicencionisDugand
Pharmacosycea glaucescensLiebm.
Pharmacosycea grandaevaMiq.
Pharmacosycea guyanensisMiq.
Pharmacosycea hernandeziiLiebm.
Pharmacosycea mexicanaMiq.
Pharmacosycea pseudoradulaMiq.
Pharmacosycea radula(Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Liebm.
Pharmacosycea radula(Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Miq.
Pharmacosycea rigidaMiq.
Urostigma laurifolium(Hort. ex Lam.) Miq.
Urostigma protensumGriseb.

Ficus maxima is a fig tree which is native to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America south to Paraguay. Figs belong to the family Moraceae. The specific epithet maxima was coined by Scottish botanist Philip Miller in 1768; Miller's name was applied to this species in the Flora of Jamaica, but it was later determined that Miller's description was actually of the species now known as Ficus aurea . To avoid confusion, Cornelis Berg proposed that the name should be conserved for this species. Berg's proposal was accepted in 2005.

Individuals may reach heights of 30 m (98 ft). Like all figs it has an obligate mutualism with fig wasps; F. maxima is only pollinated by the fig wasp Tetrapus americanus , and T. americanus only reproduces in its flowers. F. maxima fruit and leaves are important food resources for a variety of birds and mammals. It is used in a number of herbal medicines across its range.

Description

Ficus maxima is a tree which ranges from 5–30 m (16–98 ft) tall. Leaves vary in shape from long and narrow to more oval, and range from 6–24 (cm) (2–9 in) long and from 2.5–12 cm (0.98–4.72 in) wide. [3] F. maxima is monoecious; each tree bears functional male and female flowers. [4] The figs are borne singly and are 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) in diameter (sometimes up to 3 cm (1.2 in)). [5]

Taxonomy

With about 750 species, Ficus (Moraceae) is one of the largest angiosperm genera. (Frodin ranked it as the 31st largest.) [6] Ficus maxima is classified in subgenus Pharmacosycea , [7] section Pharmacosycea, [4] subsection Petenenses. [8] Although recent work suggests that subgenus Pharmacosycea is polyphyletic, section Pharmacosycea appears to be monophyletic and is a sister group to the rest of the genus Ficus. [9]

Hans Sloane's original illustration of Ficus maxima indica, the earliest illustration of Ficus aurea and the basis of Thomas Miller's Ficus maxima. The unpaired figs in the illustration led to confusion as to the identity of the species described by Miller. Ficusindicamaxima.jpg
Hans Sloane's original illustration of Ficus maxima indica, the earliest illustration of Ficus aurea and the basis of Thomas Miller's Ficus maxima. The unpaired figs in the illustration led to confusion as to the identity of the species described by Miller.

In 1768, Scottish botanist Philip Miller described Ficus maxima, [10] citing Linnaeus' Hortus Cliffortianus (1738) and Hans Sloane's Catalogus plantarum quæ in insula Jamaica (1696). Sloane's illustration of this plant (published in his 1725 A voyage to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica) depicted it with figs borne singly, a characteristic of the Ficus subgenus Pharmacosycea. A closer examination of Sloane's description led Cornelis Berg to conclude that the illustration depicted a member of the subgenus Urostigma , almost certainly F. aurea , and that the illustration of singly borne figs was probably artistic license. Berg located the plant collection upon which Sloane's illustration was based and concluded that Miller's F. maxima was, in fact, F. aurea. [7]

In 1806 the name Ficus radula was applied to material belonging to this species. The description, based on material collected in Venezuela by German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt and French botanist Aimé Bonpland, was published in Carl Ludwig Willdenow's fourth edition of Linnaeus' Species Plantarum . This is the oldest description that can unequivocally be applied to this species. [7] In 1847 Danish botanist Frederik Michael Liebmann applied the name Pharmacosycea glaucescens to Mexican material belonging to this species. [2] (It was transferred to the genus Ficus by Dutch botanist Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel in 1867.) [2] In 1849 the name Ficus suffocans was applied to Jamaican material belonging to this species in August Grisebach's Flora of the British West Indian Islands. [11]

In their 1914 Flora of Jamaica, William Fawcett and Alfred Barton Rendle linked Sloane's illustration to F. suffocans. Gordon DeWolf agreed with their conclusion and used the name F. maxima for that species in the 1960 Flora of Panama, supplanting F. radula and F. glaucescens. [3] Since this use has become widespread, Berg proposed that the name Ficus maxima be conserved in the way DeWolf had used it with a new type (Krukoff's 1934 collection from Amazonas, Brazil). [7] This proposal was accepted by the nomenclatural committee in 2005. [12]

Common names

Ficus maxima ranges from the northern Caribbean to southern South America, in countries where English, Spanish, Portuguese and a variety of indigenous languages are spoken. Across this range, it is known by a variety of common names.

Common names of Ficus maxima
Common nameUsage
Amäk wäm Lacandon Maya in Chiapas, Mexico [13]
Amate Mexico [13]
Caxinguba Brazil [14]
Hicatee Fig Belize [15]
Higillo Honduras [16]
Higueron Ecuador [17]
Maja Tacana of Bolivia [18]
Matapal Trinidad and Tobago [19]
Sàhàshá Paya of Honduras [20]
White fig Jamaica [21]

Reproduction

Figs have an obligate mutualism with fig wasps (Agaonidae); figs are only pollinated by fig wasps, and fig wasps are only able to reproduce in fig flowers. Generally, each fig species depends on a single species of fig wasp for pollination, and each species of fig wasp can only reproduce in the flowers of a single species of fig tree. Ficus maxima is pollinated by Tetrapus americanus , [4] although recent work suggests that the species known as T. americanus is a cryptic species complex of at least two species, which are not sister taxa. [22]

Figs have complicated inflorescences called syconia. Flowers are entirely contained within an enclosed structure. Their only connection with the outside is through a small pore called ostiole. Monoecious figs like F. maxima have both male and female flowers within the syconium. [23] Female flowers mature first. Once mature, they produce a volatile chemical attractant which is recognised by female wasps belonging to the species Tetrapus americanus. Female wasps of this species are about 2 mm (0.079 in) long and are capable of producing about 190 offspring. [4]

Female fig wasps arrive carrying pollen from their natal tree and squeeze their way through the ostiole into the interior of the syconium. The syncomium bears 500–600 female flowers arranged in multiple layers - those that are closer to the outer wall of the fig have short pedicels and long styles, while those that are located closer to the interior of the chamber have long pedicels and short styles. Female wasps generally lay their eggs in the short-styled flowers, while longer-styled flowers were more likely to be pollinated. The eggs hatch and the larvae parasitise the flowers in which they were laid. Pollinated flowers which have not been parasitised give rise to seeds. [4]

Male wasps mature and emerge before the females. They mate with the females, which have not yet emerged from their galls. Males cut exit holes in the outer wall of the syconium, through which the females exit the fig. [24] The male flowers mature around the same time as the female wasps emerge and shed their pollen on the newly emerged females; like about one third of figs, F. maxima is passively pollinated. [4] The newly emerged female wasps leave through the exit holes the males have cut and fly off to find a syconium in which to lay their eggs. The figs then ripen. [24] The ripe figs are eaten by a variety of mammals and birds which disperse the seeds.

Distribution

Ficus maxima ranges from Paraguay and Bolivia in the south to Mexico in the north, where it is widespread and common. It is found in fourteen states across the southern and central portion of the country. It occurs in tropical deciduous forest, tropical semi-evergreen forest, tropical evergreen forest, oak forest and in aquatic or subaquatic habitats. [25] It is found throughout Central America - in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama. It is present in Cuba and Jamaica in the Greater Antilles, and Trinidad and Tobago in the southern Caribbean. In South America it ranges through Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and in the Brazilian states of Amapá, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Pará. [26]

Ecology

Figs are sometimes considered to be potential keystone species for communities of fruit-eating animals; their asynchronous fruiting patterns may cause them to be important fruit sources when other food sources are scarce. [27] At Tinigua National Park in Colombia Ficus maxima was an important fruit producer during periods of fruit scarcity in one of three years. This led Colombian ecologist Pablo Stevens to consider it a possible keystone species, but he decided against including it in his final list of potential keystone species at the site. [28]

Ficus maxima fruit are consumed by birds and mammals. These animals act as seed dispersers when the defaecate or regurgitate intact seeds, or when they drop fruit below the parent tree. [29] In Panama, F. maxima fruit were reported to have relatively high levels of protein and low levels of water-soluble carbohydrates in a study of Ficus fruit consumed by bats. [30]

Black howler monkeys in Belize consume fruit and young and mature leaves of F. maxima. [31] In southern Veracruz, Mexico, F. maxima was the third most important food source for a studied population of Mexican howler monkeys; they consumed young leaves, mature leaves, mature fruit and petioles. [32] Venezuelan red howlers were observed feeding F. maxima fruit in Colombia. [33]

The interaction between figs and fig wasps is especially well-known (see section on reproduction, above). In addition to their pollinators, Ficus species are exploited by a group of non-pollinating chalcidoid wasps whose larvae develop in its figs. Both pollinating and non-pollinating wasps serve as hosts for parasitoid wasps. [24] In addition to T. americanus, F. maxima figs from Brazil were found to contain non-pollinating wasps belonging to the genus Critogaster , mites, ants, beetles, and dipteran and lepidopteran larvae. [34] Norwegian biologist Frode Ødegaard recorded a total of 78 phytophagous (plant-eating) insect species on a single F. maxima tree in Panamanian dry forest—59 wood eating insects, 12 which fed on green plant parts, and 7 flower visitors. It supported the fourth most specialised phytophagous insect fauna and the second largest wood-feeding insect fauna among the 24 tree species sampled. [35]

Uses

Ficus maxima is used by the Lacandon Maya to treat snakebite. Leaves are moistened by chewing and applied to the bite. [13] In the provinces of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe in Ecuador, a leaf infusion is used to treat internal inflammations. [17] The Paya of Honduras use the species for firewood, and to treat gingivitis. [20] The Tacana of Bolivia use the latex to treat intestinal parasites, [18] as do people in Guatemala's Petén Department. [36] In Brazil it is used as an anthelmintic, antirheumatic, anti-anaemic and antipyretic. [14] The latex is also used to bind limestone soils to produce cal, an adobe cement. [36]

Gaspar Diaz M. and colleagues isolated four methoxyflavones from F. maxima leaves. [14] David Lentz and colleagues observed antimicrobial activity in Ficus maxima extracts. [16]

Related Research Articles

<i>Ficus</i> Genus of flowering plants in the mulberry family Moraceae

Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The common fig (F. carica) is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region, which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.

<i>Ficus macrophylla</i> Species of banyan tree

Ficus macrophylla, commonly known as the Moreton Bay fig or Australian banyan, is a large evergreen banyan tree of the Mulberry Family (Moraceae) native to eastern Australia, from the Wide Bay–Burnett region in the north to the Illawarra in New South Wales, as well as Lord Howe Island where the subspecies F. m. columnaris is a banyan form covering 2.5 acres or more of ground. Its common name is derived from Moreton Bay in Queensland, Australia. It is best known for its imposing buttress roots.

<i>Ficus rubiginosa</i> Species of flowering plant in the family Moraceaea native to eastern Australia

Ficus rubiginosa, the rusty fig or Port Jackson fig, is a species of flowering plant native to eastern Australia in the genus Ficus. Beginning as a seedling that grows on other plants (hemiepiphyte) or rocks (lithophyte), F. rubiginosa matures into a tree 30 m (100 ft) high and nearly as wide with a yellow-brown buttressed trunk. The leaves are oval and glossy green and measure from 4 to 19.3 cm long and 1.25 to 13.2 cm wide.

<i>Ficus citrifolia</i> Species of fig native to the Americas

Ficus citrifolia, also known as the shortleaf fig, giant bearded fig, Jagüey, wild banyantree and Wimba tree, is a species of banyan native to southern Florida, the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America south to Paraguay. It is distinguished from the closely related Florida strangler fig mainly by the finer veining in the leaves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syconium</span> Type of fruit produced by plants of the genus Ficus

Syconium is the type of fruit borne by figs, formed by an enlarged, fleshy, hollow receptacle with multiple ovaries on the inside surface. In essence, it is really a fleshy stem with a number of flowers, so it is considered both a multiple and accessory fruit.

<i>Ficus pumila <span style="font-style:normal;">var.</span> awkeotsang</i> Variety of climbing fig

Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang, also known as the jelly fig, aiyu, or ai-yu, is a variety of Ficus pumila, and a member of the fig family Moraceae, native to Taiwan. The plant is known for its use in making aiyu jelly.

Ficus crassiuscula is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Central America and north-western parts of South America.

<i>Ficus aurea</i> Species of strangler fig

Ficus aurea, commonly known as the Florida strangler fig, golden fig, or higuerón, is a tree in the family Moraceae that is native to the U.S. state of Florida, the northern and western Caribbean, southern Mexico and Central America south to Panama. The specific epithet aurea was applied by English botanist Thomas Nuttall who described the species in 1846.

<i>Ficus insipida</i> Species of fig tree from the Neotropics

Ficus insipida is a common tropical tree in the fig genus of the family Moraceae growing in forest habitats along rivers. It ranges from Mexico to northern South America.

<i>Ficus americana</i> Species of fig tree native to the Neotropics

Ficus americana, commonly known as the West Indian laurel fig or Jamaican cherry fig, is a tree in the family Moraceae which is native to the Caribbean, Mexico in the north, through Central and South America south to southern Brazil. It is an introduced species in Florida, USA. The species is variable; the five recognised subspecies were previously placed in a large number of other species.

<i>Ficus pleurocarpa</i> Species of epiphyte

Ficus pleurocarpa, commonly known as the banana fig, karpe fig or gabi fig, is a fig that is endemic to the wet tropical rainforests of northeastern Queensland, Australia. It has characteristic ribbed orange and red cylindrical syconia. It begins life as a hemiepiphyte, later becoming a tree up to 25 m (82 ft) tall. F. pleurocarpa is one of the few figs known to be pollinated by more than one species of fig wasp.

<i>Ficus obliqua</i> A tree, the small-leaved fig

Ficus obliqua, commonly known as the small-leaved fig, is a tree in the family Moraceae, native to eastern Australia, New Guinea, eastern Indonesia to Sulawesi and islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Previously known for many years as Ficus eugenioides, it is a banyan of the genus Ficus, which contains around 750 species worldwide in warm climates, including the edible fig. Beginning life as a seedling, which grows on other plants (epiphyte) or on rocks (lithophyte), F. obliqua can grow to 60 m (200 ft) high and nearly as wide with a pale grey buttressed trunk, and glossy green leaves.

Ficus yoponensis is a species of fig tree found in Central and South America. It can grow to heights of 40–50 metres (130–160 ft) tall, having a trunk diameter of 1 metre (3.3 ft). The trunk is buttressed, light grey in colour and reasonably smooth. Its petioles are 1–2.5 centimetres (0.39–0.98 in) long, the stipules are straight and 3–5 centimetres (1.2–2.0 in) long. The leaves and stems are hairless. The leaves are 6–11 centimetres (2.4–4.3 in) long and 2.5–4 centimetres (0.98–1.57 in) wide, but larger in juveniles, being up to 28 centimetres (11 in) long and 5 centimetres (2.0 in) wide. The time at which they flower varies between individuals, but each tree tends to flower at a similar time each year. As in all figs, the flowers are enclosed inside the fig and can only be accessed by fig wasps, which enter to pollinate the flowers and lay their own eggs. The resulting fruit grows to 1.8 centimetres (0.71 in) in diameter and turns from green to purple with maturity. On average in Panama, F. yoponensis produce a new flush of leaves every 20 weeks and flower every 25 weeks. The species is similar in appearance to Ficus insipida but has smaller leaves, stipules and fruits and only occurs in primary forest whereas F. insipida is also found in secondary forest.

<i>Ficus variegata <span style="font-style:normal;">(plant)</span></i> Species of fig tree

Ficus variegata is a well distributed species of tropical fig tree. It occurs in many parts of Asia, islands of the Pacific and as far south east as Australia. There is a large variety of local common names including common red stem fig, green fruited fig and variegated fig. A non strangling fig which may reach 30 metres in height. The tree is evergreen when young but becomes briefly deciduous as it grows older. In Australia the fruit are eaten by cassowaries and double-eyed fig parrots.

<i>Blastophaga psenes</i> Species of wasp

Blastophaga psenes is a wasp species in the genus Blastophaga. It pollinates the common fig Ficus carica and the closely related Ficus palmata. Without a colony or nest, these wasps breed in figs and the adults live for only a few days or weeks. They locate the fig they wish to pollinate through olfactory senses.

<i>Ceratosolen</i> Genus of wasps

Ceratosolen is an Old World wasp genus in the family Agaonidae. They are pollinators of the monoecious fig subsections Sycomorus and Sycocarpus, and the section Neomorphe, all belonging to the subgenus Sycomorus. The genus is native to the Palearctic, Afrotropical, Indomalayan and Australasian realms.

<i>Ficus exasperata</i> Species of flowering plant in the mulberry family Moraceae

Ficus exasperata, also called the sandpaper tree, forest sandpaper fig, white fig, or sandpaper leaf tree, is a deciduous, and dioecious species of plant in the mulberry family Moraceae, native to tropical Africa and southern Asia.

Reproductive coevolution in <i>Ficus</i>

The genus Ficus is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, defined by their syconiums, the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. In addition to being cultivated by humans for thousands of years, Ficus is also known for their reproductive mutualism with the fig wasp.

Ficus amplissima, also known as the Indian bat tree, Indian bat fig, Pimpri, Pipri (Piparee), Pipali or Bilibasari mara is a tree species of flowering plants that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is native to Central and southern Peninsular India, Sri Lanka and Maldives, having a significant distribution throughout Western Ghats of India. It is most commonly planted to provide shade in coffee plantations due to its dense and wide foliage. The ripened figs attract many birds, especially during the spring.

Ficus bernaysii is a lowland rainforest tree in the family Moraceae, native to an area from New Guinea to the Solomon Islands. It is dioecious, and grows cauliflorous fruit. It is fed on by a wide range of animals.

References

  1. ↑ Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI); IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019). "Ficus maxima". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T131214756A143296798. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T131214756A143296798.en . Retrieved 10 December 2022.
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  3. 1 2 DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr. 1960. Ficus (Tourn.) L. In Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle II. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 47 (2):81–203
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jousselin, Emmanuelle; Finn Kjellberg; Edward Allen Herre (2004). "Flower specialization in a passively pollinated monoecious fig: A question of style and stigma?" (PDF). International Journal of Plant Sciences . 165 (4): 587–593. doi:10.1086/386558. S2CID   29920586. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
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  7. 1 2 3 4 Berg, Cornelis C. (May 2003). "(1587–1590) Proposals to conserve the names Ficus citrifolia against F. caribaea, F. maxima with a conserved type, F. aurea against F. ciliolosa, and F. americana against F. perforata (Moraceae)". Taxon. 52 (2): 368–370. doi: 10.2307/3647421 . JSTOR   3647421.
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  10. ↑ Miller, Philip (1768). The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Best and Newest Methods of Cultivating and Improving The Kitchen, Fruit, Flower Garden, and Nursery; As also for Performing The Practical Parts of Agriculture: Including the Management of Vineyards, With The Methods of Making and Preserving Wine, According to the present Practice of The most skilful Vignerons in the several Wine Countries in Europe. Together With Directions for Propagating and Improving, From Real Practice and Experience, All Sorts of Timber Trees (Eighth ed.). London: Printed for the Author.
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  14. 1 2 3 Diaz M., Gaspar; Alberto C. Arruda; Mara S. P. Arruda; Adolfo H. Müller (1997). "Methoxyflavones from Ficus maxima". Phytochemistry . 45 (8): 1697–99. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(96)00729-7.
  15. ↑ Mars, Laura K.; Bette A. Loiselle (2003). "Recruitment of Black Howler Fruit Trees in Fragmented Forests of Northern Belize". International Journal of Primatology. 24 (1): 65–86. doi:10.1023/A:1021446512364. S2CID   21105808.
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  17. 1 2 Tene, Vicente; Omar Malagón; Paola Vita Finzi; Giovanni Vidari; Chabaco Armijos; Tomás Zaragoza (2007). "An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 111 (1): 63–81. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.10.032. PMID   17137737.
  18. 1 2 Bourdy, G.; S. J. DeWalt; L. R. Chávez de Michel; A. Roca; E. Deharo; V. Muñoz; L. Balderrama; C. Quenevo; A. Gimenez (2000). "Medicinal plants uses of the Tacana, an Amazonian Bolivian ethnic group". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 70 (2): 87–109. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00158-0. PMID   10771199.
  19. ↑ Homer, Floyd; Kishore Lal; Winston Johnson (1998). "Forest species regeneration and management options in the Melajo Nature Reserve, Trinidad and Tobago". Environmental Conservation. 25: 53–64. doi:10.1017/S0376892998000095. S2CID   86503170.
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  22. ↑ Molbo, Drude; Carlos A. Machado; Jan G. Sevenster; Laurent Keller; Edward Allen Herre (2003). "Cryptic species of fig-pollinating wasps: Implications for the evolution of the fig–wasp mutualism, sex allocation, and precision of adaptation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 100 (10): 5867–72. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.5867M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0930903100 . PMC   156293 . PMID   12714682.
  23. ↑ Janzen, Daniel H. (1979). "How to be a fig". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 10: 13–51. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.10.110179.000305. ISSN   0066-4162. S2CID   85611780.
  24. 1 2 3 Kjellberg, Finn; Emmanuelle Jousselin; Martine Hossaert-McKey; Jean-Yves Rasplus (2005). "Biology, ecology and evolution of fig-pollinating wasps (Chalcidoidea, Agaonidae)" (PDF). In A. Raman; Carl W. Schaefer; Toni M. Withers (eds.). Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Gall-inducing Arthropods. Enfield (NH) USA, Plymouth, UK: Science publishers, Inc. pp. 539–572. ISBN   978-1-57808-262-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-07-04.
  25. ↑ Serrato, Alejandra; Guillermo Ibarra-Manríquez; Ken Oyama (March 2004). "Biogeography and conservation of the genus Ficus (Moraceae) in Mexico". Journal of Biogeography . 31 (3): 475–85. doi:10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.01039.x. S2CID   82099604.
  26. ↑ "Ficus maxima". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 2008-06-28.
  27. ↑ Terborgh, John (1986). "Keystone plant resources in the tropical forests". In Michael E. Soulé (ed.). Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. pp. 330–44. ISBN   978-0-87893-795-0.
  28. ↑ Stevenson, Pablo (2005). "Potential Keystone Plant Species for the Frugivore Community at Tinigua Park, Colombia". In J. Lawrence Dew; Jean Philippe Boubli (eds.). Tropical Fruits and Frugivores: The Search for Strong Interactors. Springer Netherlands. pp. 37–57. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3833-X. ISBN   978-1-4020-3833-4.
  29. ↑ Jones, Matthew B. (April 1994). Secondary Seed Removal by Ants, Beetles, and Rodents in a Neotropical Moist Forest (M.S. Thesis). University of Florida. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  30. ↑ Wendeln, Marcia C.; James R. Runkle; Elisabeth K. V. Kalko (2000). "Nutritional Values of 14 Fig Species and Bat Feeding Preferences in Panama" (PDF). Biotropica. 32 (3): 489–501. doi:10.1646/0006-3606(2000)032[0489:NVOFSA]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0006-3606. S2CID   198157459.
  31. ↑ Silver, S. C.; L. E. T. Ostro; C. P. Yeager; R. Horwich (1999). "Feeding ecology of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) in Northern Belize" (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 45 (3): 263–79. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1998)45:3<263::AID-AJP3>3.0.CO;2-U. PMID   9651649. S2CID   22566572. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  32. ↑ Serio-Silva, Juan Carlos; Victor Rico-Gray; Laura Teresa Hernández-Salazar; Rene Espinosa-Gómez (2002). "The role of Ficus (Moraceae) in the diet and nutrition of a troop of Mexican howler monkeys, Alouatta palliata mexicana, released on an island in southern Veracruz, Mexico". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 18 (6): 913–28. doi:10.1017/S0266467402002596. S2CID   84794140.
  33. ↑ Stevenson, Pablo R.; Maria Clara Castellanos; Juan Carlos Pizarro; Mariaximena Garavito (2002). "Effects of Seed Dispersal by Three Ateline Monkey Species on Seed Germination at Tinigua National Park, Colombia". International Journal of Primatology. 23 (6): 1187–1204. doi:10.1023/A:1021118618936. S2CID   5560227.
  34. ↑ Nazareno, Alison G.; Ranyse B. Querino da Silva II; Rodrigo A. S. Pereira (2007). "Fauna de Hymenoptera em Ficus spp. (Moraceae) na Amazônia Central, Brasil". Iheringia, Série Zoologia (in Portuguese). 97 (4): 441–46. doi: 10.1590/S0073-47212007000400013 .
  35. ↑ Ødegaard, Frode (2000). "The relative importance of trees versus lianas as hosts for phytophagous beetles (Coleoptera) in tropical forests". Journal of Biogeography. 27 (2): 283–96. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.456.645 . doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00404.x. S2CID   84661148.
  36. 1 2 Mutchnick, Patrice A.; Brian C. McCarthy (1997). "An ethnobotanical analysis of the tree species common to the subtropical moist forests of the Petén, Guatemala". Economic Botany. 52 (1): 158–83. doi:10.1007/BF02893110. S2CID   24751479.
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