Impression management

Last updated

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction. [1] It was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman in 1956 in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, and then was expanded upon in 1967.

Contents

Impression management behaviors include accounts (providing "explanations for a negative event to escape disapproval"), excuses (denying "responsibility for negative outcomes"), and opinion conformity ("speak(ing) or behav(ing) in ways consistent with the target"), along with many others. [2] By utilizing such behaviors, those who partake in impression management are able to control others' perception of them or events pertaining to them. Impression management is possible in nearly any situation, such as in sports (wearing flashy clothes or trying to impress fans with their skills), or on social media (only sharing positive posts). Impression management can be used with either benevolent or malicious intent.

Impression management is usually used synonymously with self-presentation, in which a person tries to influence the perception of their image. The notion of impression management was first applied to face-to-face communication, but then was expanded to apply to computer-mediated communication. The concept of impression management is applicable to academic fields of study such as psychology and sociology as well as practical fields such as corporate communication and media.

Background

The foundation and the defining principles of impression management were created by Erving Goffman in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . Impression management theory states that one tries to alter one's perception according to one's goals. In other words, the theory is about how individuals wish to present themselves, but in a way that satisfies their needs and goals. Goffman "proposed to focus on how people in daily work situations present themselves and, in so doing, what they are doing to others", and he was "particularly interested in how a person guides and controls how others form an impression of them and what a person may or may not do while performing before them". [3]

Theory

Motives

A range of factors that govern impression management can be identified. It can be stated that impression management becomes necessary whenever there exists a kind of social situation, whether real or imaginary. Logically, the awareness of being a potential subject of monitoring is also crucial. Furthermore, the characteristics of a given social situation are important. Specifically, the surrounding cultural norms determine the appropriateness of particular nonverbal behaviours. [4] The actions have to be appropriate to the targets, and within that culture, so that the kind of audience as well as the relation to the audience influences the way impression management is realized. A person's goals are another factor governing the ways and strategies of impression management. This refers to the content of an assertion, which also leads to distinct ways of presentation of aspects of the self. The degree of self-efficacy describes whether a person is convinced that it is possible to convey the intended impression. [5]

A new study finds that, all other things being equal, people are more likely to pay attention to faces that have been associated with negative gossip than those with neutral or positive associations. The study contributes to a body of work showing that far from being objective, human perceptions are shaped by unconscious brain processes that determine what they "choose" to see or ignore—even before they become aware of it. The findings also add to the idea that the brain evolved to be particularly sensitive to "bad guys" or cheaters—fellow humans who undermine social life by deception, theft or other non-cooperative behavior. [6]

There are many methods behind self-presentation, including self disclosure (identifying what makes you "you" to another person), managing appearances (trying to fit in), ingratiation, aligning actions (making one's actions seem appealing or understandable), and alter-casting (imposing identities on other people). Maintaining a version of self-presentation that is generally considered to be attractive can help to increase one's social capital, and this method is commonly implemented by individuals at networking events. These self-presentation methods can also be used on the corporate level as impression management. [1] [7]

Self-presentation

Self-presentation is conveying information about oneself – or an image of oneself – to others. There are two types and motivations of self-presentation:

Self-presentation is expressive. Individuals construct an image of themselves to claim personal identity, and present themselves in a manner that is consistent with that image. If they feel like it is restricted, they often exhibit reactance or become defiant – try to assert their freedom against those who would seek to curtail self-presentation expressiveness. An example of this dynamic is someone who grew up with extremely strict or controlling parental figures. The child in this situation may feel that their identity and emotions have been suppressed, which may cause them to behave negatively towards others.

Self-presentation can be either defensive or assertive strategies (also described as protective versus acquisitive). [12] Whereas defensive strategies include behaviours like avoidance of threatening situations or means of self-handicapping, assertive strategies refer to more active behaviour like the verbal idealisation of the self, the use of status symbols or similar practices. [13]

These strategies play important roles in one's maintenance of self-esteem. [14] One's self-esteem is affected by their evaluation of their own performance and their perception of how others react to their performance. As a result, people actively portray impressions that will elicit self-esteem enhancing reactions from others. [15]

In 2019, as filtered photos are perceived as deceptive by users, PlentyOfFish along with other dating sites have started to ban filtered images. [16]

Social interaction

Goffman argued in his 1967 book, Interaction ritual, that people participate in social interactions by performing a "line", or "pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts", which is created and maintained by both the performer and the audience. [17] By enacting a line effectively, the person gains positive social value, which is also called "face". The success of a social interaction will depend on whether the performer has the ability to maintain face. [3] As a result, a person is required to display a kind of character by becoming "someone who can be relied upon to maintain himself as an interactant, poised for communication, and to act so that others do not endanger themselves by presenting themselves as interactants to him". [17] Goffman analyses how a human being in "ordinary work situations presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them". [18]

When Goffman turned to focus on people physically presented in a social interaction, the "social dimension of impression management certainly extends beyond the specific place and time of engagement in the organization". Impression management is "a social activity that has individual and community implications". [3] We call it "pride" when a person displays a good showing from duty to himself, while we call it "honor" when he "does so because of duty to wider social units, and receives support from these duties in doing so". [17]

Another approach to moral standards that Goffman pursues is the notion of "rules of conduct", which "can be partially understood as obligations or moral constraints". These rules may be substantive (involving laws, morality, and ethics) or ceremonial (involving etiquette). [3] Rules of conduct play an important role when a relationship "is asymmetrical and the expectations of one person toward another are hierarchical." [3]

Dramaturgical analogy

Goffman presented impression management dramaturgically, explaining the motivations behind complex human performances within a social setting based on a play metaphor. [19] Goffman's work incorporates aspects of a symbolic interactionist perspective, [20] emphasizing a qualitative analysis of the interactive nature of the communication process. Impression management requires the physical presence of others. Performers who seek certain ends in their interest, must "work to adapt their behavior in such a way as to give off the correct impression to a particular audience" and "implicitly ask that the audience take their performance seriously". [3] Goffman proposed that while among other people individual would always strive to control the impression that others form of him or her so that to achieve individual or social goals. [21]

The actor, shaped by the environment and target audience, sees interaction as a performance. The objective of the performance is to provide the audience with an impression consistent with the desired goals of the actor. [22] Thus, impression management is also highly dependent on the situation. [23] In addition to these goals, individuals differ in responses from the interactive environment, some may be non-responsive to an audience's reactions while others actively respond to audience reactions in order to elicit positive results. These differences in response towards the environment and target audience are called self-monitoring. [24] Another factor in impression management is self-verification, the act of conforming the audience to the person's self-concept.

The audience can be real or imaginary. IM style norms, part of the mental programming received through socialization, are so fundamental that we usually do not notice our expectations of them. While an actor (speaker) tries to project a desired image, an audience (listener) might attribute a resonant or discordant image. An example is provided by situations in which embarrassment occurs and threatens the image of a participant. [25]

Goffman proposes that performers "can use dramaturgical discipline as a defense to ensure that the 'show' goes on without interruption." [3] Goffman contends that dramaturgical discipline includes: [3]

  1. coping with dramaturgical contingencies;
  2. demonstrating intellectual and emotional involvement;
  3. remembering one's part and not committing unmeant gestures or faux pas;
  4. not giving away secrets involuntarily;
  5. covering up inappropriate behavior on the part of teammates on the spur of the moment;
  6. offering plausible reasons or deep apologies for disruptive events;
  7. maintaining self-control (for example, speaking briefly and modestly);
  8. suppressing emotions to private problems; and
  9. suppressing spontaneous feelings.

Manipulation and ethics

In business, "managing impressions" normally "involves someone trying to control the image that a significant stakeholder has of them". The ethics of impression management has been hotly debated on whether we should see it as an effective self-revelation or as cynical manipulation. [3] Some people insist that impression management can reveal a truer version of the self by adopting the strategy of being transparent. Because transparency "can be provided so easily and because it produces information of value to the audience, it changes the nature of impression management from being cynically manipulative to being a kind of useful adaptation".

Virtue signalling is used within groups to criticize their own members for valuing outward appearance over substantive action (having a real or permanent, rather than apparent or temporary, existence).

Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. [26] By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. The process of manipulation involves bringing an unknowing victim under the domination of the manipulator, often using deception, and using the victim to serve their own purposes.

Machiavellianism is a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, and therefore able to detach him or herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and manipulate others. [27] (See also Machiavellianism in the workplace.)

Lying constitutes a force that is destructive and can manipulate an environment allowing them to be narcissistic human beings. A person's mind can be manipulated into believing those antics are true as though it relates to being solely deceptive and unethical. [28] Theories show manipulation can cause a huge effect on the dynamic of one's relationship. The emotions of a person can stem from a trait that is mistrustful, triggering one's attitude and character to misbehave disapprovingly. Relationships with a positive force can provide a greater exchange whereas with relationships having poor moral values, the chances of the connection will be based on detachment and disengagement. [29] Dark personalities and manipulation are within the same entity. It will intervene between a person's attainable goal if their perspective is only focused on self-centeredness. [30] The personality entices a range of erratic behaviors that will corrupt the mind into practicing violent acts resulting in a rage of anger and physical harm. [31]

Public relations Ethics. Professionals both serve the public's interest and private interests of businesses, associations, non-profit organizations, and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated debates among scholars of the discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values. This conflict represents the main ethical predicament of public relations.[40] In 2000, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new code of ethics "advocacy" – for the first time – as a core value of the discipline.[40]

The field of public relations is generally highly un-regulated, but many professionals voluntarily adhere to the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies to avoid exposure for ethical violations.[41] The Chartered Institute of Public Relations, the Public Relations Society of America, and The Institute of Public Relations are a few organizations that publish an ethical code. Still, Edelman's 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only 20 percent of survey respondents from the public believed paid communicators within a company were credible.[42] Individuals in public relations are growing increasingly concerned with their company's marketing practices, questioning whether they agree with the company's social responsibility. They seek more influence over marketing and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the other hand, individuals in marketing are increasingly interested in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm marketing.[43]

According to Scott Cutlip, the social justification for public relations is the right for an organization to have a fair hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but to obtain such a hearing for their ideas requires a skilled advocate.[44]

Marketing and communications strategist, Ira Gostin, believes there is a code of conduct when conducting business and using public relations. Public relations specialists have the ability to influence society. Fact-checking and presenting accurate information is necessary to maintain credibility with employers and clients.[45] Public Relations Code of Ethics The Public Relation Student Society of America has established a set of fundamental guidelines that people within the public relations professions should practice and use in their business atmosphere. These values are:

Advocacy: Serving the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for the clientele. This can occur by displaying the marketplace of ideas, facts and viewpoints to aid informed public debate. Honesty: Standing by the truth and accuracy of all facts in the case and advancing those statements to the public. Expertise: To become and stay informed of the specialized knowledge needed in the field of Public Relations. Taking that knowledge and improving the field through development, research and education. Meanwhile, professionals also build their understanding, credibility, and relationships to understand various audiences and industries. Independence: Provide unbiased work to those that are represented while being accountable for all actions. Loyalty: Stay devoted to the client while remembering that there is a duty to still serve the public interest. Fairness: Honorably conduct business with any and all clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, media and general public. Respecting all opinions and right of free expression.[46] International Public Relations Code of Ethics Other than the ethics put in place in the United States of America there are also International ethics set to ensure proper and, legal worldwide communication. Regarding these ethics, there are broad codes used specifically for international forms of public relations, and then there are more specific forms from different countries. For example, some countries have certain associations to create ethics and standards to communication across their country.

The International Association of Business Communication (founded in 1971),[47] or also known as IABC, has its own set of ethics in order to enforce a set of guidelines that ensure communication internationality is legal, ethical, and is in good taste. Some principles that members of the board of IABC follow include.

Having proper and legal communication Being understanding and open to other people's cultures, values, and beliefs Create communication that is accurate, trusting, to ensure mutual respect and understanding The IABC members use the following list of ethics in order to work to improve values of communication throughout the world:[47]

Being credible and honest Keeping up with information to ensure accuracy of communication Understanding free speech and respecting this right Having sensitivity towards other people's thoughts, beliefs, and way of life Not taking part in unethical behaviors Obeying policies and laws Giving proper credit to resources used for communication Ensuring private information is protected (not used for personal gain) and if publicized, guarantee proper legal measures will be put in place. Publishers of said communication do not accept gifts, benefits, payments etc.; for work, or their services Creating results and spreading results that are attainable and they can deliver. Being fully truthful to other people, and themselves.

Media is a major resource in the public relations career especially in news networks. That is why as a public relations specialist, having proper information is very important, and crucial to the society as a whole. Spin Main article: Spin (public relations) Spin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit that is meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1950s has shifted to describing a "polishing of the truth."[48] Today, spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway public opinion.[49] Companies may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly different direction than they actually are.[48] Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation.[50][51] Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors."

In Stuart Ewen's PR! A Social History of Spin, he argues that public relations can be a real menace to democracy as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations are able to hire public relations professionals and transmit their messages through the media channels and exercise a huge amount of influence upon the individual who is defenseless against such a powerful force. He claims that public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and the best way to resist is to become media literate and use critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated messages.[52]

According to Jim Hoggan, "public relations is not by definition 'spin'. Public relations is the art of building good relationships. You do that most effectively by earning trust and goodwill among those who are important to you and your business... Spin is to public relations what manipulation is to interpersonal communications. It's a diversion whose primary effect is ultimately to undermine the central goal of building trust and nurturing a good relationship."[53]

The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions (cherry picking), the so-called "non-denial denial", phrasing that in a way presumes unproven truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.

Negative See also: Negative campaigning Negative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR), 'black hat PR' and in some earlier writing "Black PR", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or corporate identity. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security, industrial espionage, social engineering and competitive intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target, producing misleading facts to fool a competitor.[54][55][56][57] In politics, a decision to use negative PR is also known as negative campaigning.

Application

Face-to-face communication

Self, social identity and social interaction

The social psychologist, Edward E. Jones, brought the study of impression management to the field of psychology during the 1960s and extended it to include people's attempts to control others' impression of their personal characteristics. [32] His work sparked an increased attention towards impression management as a fundamental interpersonal process.

The concept of self is important to the theory of impression management as the images people have of themselves shape and are shaped by social interactions. [33] Our self-concept develops from social experience early in life. [34] Schlenker (1980) further suggests that children anticipate the effect that their behaviours will have on others and how others will evaluate them. They control the impressions they might form on others, and in doing so they control the outcomes they obtain from social interactions.

Social identity refers to how people are defined and regarded in social interactions. [35] Individuals use impression management strategies to influence the social identity they project to others. [34] The identity that people establish influences their behaviour in front of others, others' treatment of them and the outcomes they receive. Therefore, in their attempts to influence the impressions others form of themselves, a person plays an important role in affecting his social outcomes. [36]

Social interaction is the process by which we act and react to those around us. In a nutshell, social interaction includes those acts people perform toward each other and the responses they give in return. [37] The most basic function of self-presentation is to define the nature of a social situation (Goffman, 1959). Most social interactions are very role governed. Each person has a role to play, and the interaction proceeds smoothly when these roles are enacted effectively. People also strive to create impressions of themselves in the minds of others in order to gain material and social rewards (or avoid material and social punishments). [38]

Cross-cultural communication

Understanding how one's impression management behavior might be interpreted by others can also serve as the basis for smoother interactions and as a means for solving some of the most insidious communication problems among individuals of different racial/ethnic and gender backgrounds (Sanaria, 2016). [1] [39]

"People are sensitive to how they are seen by others and use many forms of impression management to compel others to react to them in the ways they wish" (Giddens, 2005, p. 142). An example of this concept is easily illustrated through cultural differences. Different cultures have diverse thoughts and opinions on what is considered beautiful or attractive. For example, Americans tend to find tan skin attractive, but in Indonesian culture, pale skin is more desirable. [40] It is also argued that Women in India use different impression management strategies as compared to women in western cultures (Sanaria, 2016). [1]

Another illustration of how people attempt to control how others perceive them is portrayed through the clothing they wear. A person who is in a leadership position strives to be respected and in order to control and maintain the impression. This illustration can also be adapted for a cultural scenario. The clothing people choose to wear says a great deal about the person and the culture they represent. For example, most Americans are not overly concerned with conservative clothing. Most Americans are content with tee shirts, shorts, and showing skin. The exact opposite is true on the other side of the world. "Indonesians are both modest and conservative in their attire" (Cole, 1997, p. 77). [40]

One way people shape their identity is through sharing photos on social media platforms. The ability to modify photos by certain technologies, such as Photoshop, helps achieve their idealized images. [41]

Companies use cross-cultural training (CCT) to facilitate effective cross-cultural interaction. CCT can be defined as any procedure used to increase an individual's ability to cope with and work in a foreign environment. Training employees in culturally consistent and specific impression management (IM) techniques provide the avenue for the employee to consciously switch from an automatic, home culture IM mode to an IM mode that is culturally appropriate and acceptable. Second, training in IM reduces the uncertainty of interaction with FNs and increases employee's ability to cope by reducing unexpected events. [39]

Team-working in hospital wards

Impression management theory can also be used in health communication. It can be used to explore how professionals 'present' themselves when interacting on hospital wards and also how they employ front stage and backstage settings in their collaborative work. [42]

In the hospital wards, Goffman's front stage and backstage performances are divided into 'planned' and 'ad hoc' rather than 'official' and 'unofficial' interactions. [42]

  • Planned front stage is the structured collaborative activities such as ward rounds and care conferences which took place in the presence of patients and/or carers.
  • Ad hoc front stage is the unstructured or unplanned interprofessional interactions that took place in front of patients/carers or directly involved patients/carers.
  • Planned backstage is the structured multidisciplinary team meeting (MDT) in which professionals gathered in a private area of the ward, in the absence of patients, to discuss management plans for patients under their care.
  • Ad hoc backstage is the use of corridors and other ward spaces for quick conversations between professionals in the absence of patients/carers.
  • Offstage is the social activities between and among professional groups/individuals outside of the hospital context. [42]

Results show that interprofessional interactions in this setting are often based less on planned front stage activities than on ad hoc backstage activities. While the former may, at times, help create and maintain an appearance of collaborative interprofessional 'teamwork', conveying a sense of professional togetherness in front of patients and their families, they often serve little functional practice. These findings have implications for designing ways to improve interprofessional practice on acute hospital wards where there is no clearly defined interprofessional team, but rather a loose configuration of professionals working together in a collaborative manner around a particular patient. In such settings, interventions that aim to improve both ad hoc as well as planned forms of communication may be more successful than those intended to only improve planned communication. [42]

Computer-mediated communication

The hyperpersonal model of computer-mediated communication (CMC) posits that users exploit the technological aspects of CMC in order to enhance the messages they construct to manage impressions and facilitate desired relationships. The most interesting aspect of the advent of CMC is how it reveals basic elements of interpersonal communication, bringing into focus fundamental processes that occur as people meet and develop relationships relying on typed messages as the primary mechanism of expression. "Physical features such as one's appearance and voice provide much of the information on which people base first impressions face-to-face, but such features are often unavailable in CMC. Various perspectives on CMC have suggested that the lack of nonverbal cues diminishes CMC's ability to foster impression formation and management, or argued impressions develop nevertheless, relying on language and content cues. One approach that describes the way that CMC's technical capacities work in concert with users' impression development intentions is the hyperpersonal model of CMC (Walther, 1996). As receivers, CMC users idealize partners based on the circumstances or message elements that suggest minimal similarity or desirability. As senders, CMC users selectively self-present, revealing attitudes and aspects of the self in a controlled and socially desirable fashion. The CMC channel facilitates editing, discretion, and convenience, and the ability to tune out environmental distractions and re-allocate cognitive resources in order to further enhance one's message composition. Finally, CMC may create dynamic feedback loops wherein the exaggerated expectancies are confirmed and reciprocated through mutual interaction via the bias-prone communication processes identified above." [43]

According to O'Sullivan's (2000) impression management model of communication channels, individuals will prefer to use mediated channels rather than face-to-face conversation in face-threatening situations. Within his model, this trend is due to the channel features that allow for control over exchanged social information. The present paper extends O'Sullivan's model by explicating information control as a media affordance, arising from channel features and social skills, that enables an individual to regulate and restrict the flow of social information in an interaction, and present a scale to measure it. One dimension of the information control scale, expressive information control, positively predicted channel preference for recalled face-threatening situations. This effect remained after controlling for social anxiousness and power relations in relationships. O'Sullivan's model argues that some communication channels may help individuals manage this struggle and therefore be more preferred as those situations arise. It was based on an assumption that channels with features that allow fewer social cues, such as reduced nonverbal information or slower exchange of messages, invariably afford an individual with an ability to better manage the flow of a complex, ambiguous, or potentially difficult conversations. [44] Individuals manage what information about them is known, or isn't known, to control other's impression of them. Anyone who has given the bathroom a quick cleaning when they anticipate the arrival of their mother-in-law (or date) has managed their impression. For an example from information and communication technology use, inviting someone to view a person's Webpage before a face-to-face meeting may predispose them to view the person a certain way when they actually meet. [3]

Corporate brand

The impression management perspective offers potential insight into how corporate stories could build the corporate brand, by influencing the impressions that stakeholders form of the organization. The link between themes and elements of corporate stories and IM strategies/behaviours indicates that these elements will influence audiences' perceptions of the corporate brand. [45]

Corporate storytelling

Corporate storytelling is suggested to help demonstrate the importance of the corporate brand to internal and external stakeholders, and create a position for the company against competitors, as well as help a firm to bond with its employees (Roper and Fill, 2012). The corporate reputation is defined as a stakeholder's perception of the organization (Brown et al., 2006), and Dowling (2006) suggests that if the story causes stakeholders to perceive the organization as more authentic, distinctive, expert, sincere, powerful, and likeable, then it is likely that this will enhance the overall corporate reputation.

Impression management theory is a relevant perspective to explore the use of corporate stories in building the corporate brand. The corporate branding literature notes that interactions with brand communications enable stakeholders to form an impression of the organization (Abratt and Keyn, 2012), and this indicates that IM theory could also therefore bring insight into the use of corporate stories as a form of communication to build the corporate brand. Exploring the IM strategies/behaviors evident in corporate stories can indicate the potential for corporate stories to influence the impressions that audiences form of the corporate brand. [45]

Corporate document

Firms use more subtle forms of influencing outsiders' impressions of firm performance and prospects, namely by manipulating the content and presentation of information in corporate documents with the purpose of "distort[ing] readers" perceptions of corporate achievements" [Godfrey et al., 2003, p. 96]. In the accounting literature this is referred to as impression management. The opportunity for impression management in corporate reports is increasing. Narrative disclosures have become longer and more sophisticated over the last few years. This growing importance of descriptive sections in corporate documents provides firms with the opportunity to overcome information asymmetries by presenting more detailed information and explanation, thereby increasing their decision-usefulness. However, they also offer an opportunity for presenting financial performance and prospects in the best possible light, thus having the opposite effect. In addition to the increased opportunity for opportunistic discretionary disclosure choices, impression management is also facilitated in that corporate narratives are largely unregulated.[ citation needed ]

Media

The medium of communication influences the actions taken in impression management. Self-efficacy can differ according to the fact whether the trial to convince somebody is made through face-to-face-interaction or by means of an e-mail. [24] Communication via devices like telephone, e-mail or chat is governed by technical restrictions, so that the way people express personal features etc. can be changed. This often shows how far people will go.

The affordances of a certain medium also influence the way a user self-presents. [46] Communication via a professional medium such as e-mail would result in professional self-presentation. [47] The individual would use greetings, correct spelling, grammar and capitalization as well as scholastic language. Personal communication mediums such as text-messaging would result in a casual self-presentation where the user shortens words, includes emojis and selfies and uses less academic language.

Another example of impression management theory in play is present in today's world of social media. Users are able to create a profile and share whatever they like with their friends, family, or the world. Users can choose to omit negative life events and highlight positive events if they so please. [48]

Profiles on social networking sites

Social media usage among American adults grew from 5% in 2005 to 69% in 2018. [49] Facebook is the most popular social media platform, followed by Instagram, LinkedIn, and Twitter. [49]

Social networking users will employ protective self-presentations for image management. Users will use subtractive and repudiate strategies to maintain a desired image. [50] Subtractive strategy is used to untag an undesirable photo on Social Networking Sites. In addition to un-tagging their name, some users will request the photo to be removed entirely. Repudiate strategy is used when a friend posts an undesirable comment about the user. In response to an undesired post, users may add another wall post as an innocence defense. Michael Stefanone states that "self-esteem maintenance is an important motivation for strategic self-presentation online." [50] Outside evaluations of their physical appearance, competence, and approval from others determines how social media users respond to pictures and wall posts. Unsuccessful self-presentation online can lead to rejection and criticism from social groups. Social media users are motivated to actively participate in SNS from a desire to manage their online image. [51]

Online social media presence often varies with respect to users' age, gender, and body weight. While men and women tend to use social media in comparable degrees, both uses and capabilities vary depending on individual preferences as well perceptions of power or dominance. [52] In terms of performance, men tend to display characteristics associated with masculinity as well as more commanding language styles. [52] In much the same way, women tend to present feminine self-depictions and engage in more supportive language. [52]

With respect to usage across age variances, many children develop digital and social media literacy skills around 7 or 8 and begin to form online social relationships via virtual environments designed for their age group. [52] The years between thirteen and fifteen demonstrate high social media usage that begins to become more balanced with offline interactions as teens learn to navigate both their online and in-person identities which may often diverge from one another. [52]

Social media platforms often provide a great degree of social capital during the college years and later. [52] College students are motivated to use Facebook for impression management, self-expression, entertainment, communication and relationship maintenance. [53] College students sometimes rely on Facebook to build a favorable online identity, which contributes to greater satisfaction with campus life. [53] In building an online persona, college students sometimes engage in identity manipulation, including altering personality and appearance, to increase their self-esteem and appear more attractive to peers. [54] Since risky behavior is frequently deemed attractive by peers, college students often use their social media profiles to gain approval by highlighting instances of risky behavior, like alcohol use and unhealthy eating. [55] Users present risky behavior as signs of achievement, fun, and sociability, participating in a form of impression management aimed at building recognition and acceptance among peers. [55] During middle adulthood, users tend to display greater levels of confidence and mastery in their social media connections while older adults tend to use social media for educational and supportive purposes. [52] These myriad factors influence how users will form and communicate their online personas. In addition to that, TikTok has made an influence on college students and adults to create their own self-image on a social media platform. The positivity of this is that college students and adults are using this to create their own brand for business purposes and for entertainment purposes. This gives them a chance to seek the desires of stardom and build an audience for revenue. [56] Media fatigue is a negative effect that is caused by the conveyance of social media presence. Social anxiety stems from low-self esteem which causes a strain of stress in one's self-identity that is perceived in the media limelight for targeted audiences. [57]

According to Marwick, social profiles create implications such as "context collapse" for presenting oneself to the audience. The concept of 'context collapse' suggests that social technologies make it difficult to vary self-presentation based on environment or audience. "Large sites such as Facebook and Twitter group friends, family members, coworkers, and acquaintances together under the umbrella term 'friends'." [58] In a way, this context collapse is aided by a notion of performativity as characterized by Judith Butler.

Political impression management

Impression management is also influential in the political spectrum. "Political impression management" was coined in 1972 by sociologist Peter M. Hall, who defined the term as the art of marking a candidate look electable and capable (Hall, 1972). This is due in part to the importance of "presidential" candidates—appearance, image, and narrative are a key part of a campaign and thus impression management has always been a huge part of winning an election (Katz 2016). Social media has evolved to be part of the political process, thus political impression management is becoming more challenging as the online image of the candidate often now lies in the hands of the voters themselves.

The evolution of social media has increased the way in which political campaigns are targeting voters and how influential impression management is when discussing political issues and campaigns. [59] Political campaigns continue to use social media as a way to promote their campaigns and share information about who they are to make sure to lead the conversation about their political platform. [60] Research has shown that political campaigns must create clear profiles for each candidate in order to convey the right message to potential voters. [61]

In the workplace

In professional settings, impression management is usually primarily focused on appearing competent, [62] but also involves constructing and displaying an image of oneself that others find socially desirable and believably authentic. [63] [64] People manage impressions by their choice of dress, dressing either more or less formally, and this impacts perceptions their coworkers and supervisors form. [65] The process includes a give and take; the person managing their impression receives feedback as the people around them interact with the self they are presenting and respond, either favorably or negatively. [64] Research has shown impression management to be impactful in the workplace because the perceptions co-workers form of one another shape their relationships and indirectly influence their ability to function well as teams and achieve goals together. [66]

In their research on impression management among leaders, Peck and Hogue define "impression management as conscious or unconscious, authentic or inauthentic, goal-directed behavior individuals engage in to influence the impression others form of them in social interactions." [66] Using those three dimensions, labelled "automatic" vs. "controlled", "authentic" vs. "inauthentic", and "pro-self" vs. "pro-social", Peck and Hogue formed a typology of eight impression management archetypes. [66] They suggest that while no one archetype stands out as the sole correct or ideal way to practice impression management as a leader, types rooted in authenticity and pro-social goals, rather than self-focused goals, create the most positive perceptions among followers. [66]

Impression management strategies employed in the workplace also involve deception, and the ability to recognize deceptive acts impacts the supervisor-subordinate relationship as well as coworker relationships. [67] When it comes to workplace behaviors, ingratiation is the major focus of impression management research. [68] Ingratiation behaviors are those that employees engage in to elicit a favorable impression from a supervisor. [69] [70] These behaviors can have a negative or positive impact on coworkers and supervisors, and this impact is dependent on how ingratiating is perceived by the target and those who observe the ingratiating behaviors. [69] [70] The perception that follows an ingratiation act is dependent on whether the target attributes the behavior to the authentic-self of the person performing the act, or to impression management strategies. [71] Once the target is aware that ingratiation is resulting from impression management strategies, the target will perceive ethical concerns regarding the performance. [71] However, if the target attributes the ingratiation performance to the actor's authentic-self, the target will perceive the behavior as positive and not have ethical concerns. [71]

Workplace leaders that are publicly visible, such as CEOs, also perform impression management with regard to stakeholders outside their organizations. In a study comparing online profiles of North American and European CEOs, research showed that while education was referenced similarly in both groups, profiles of European CEOs tended to be more professionally focused, while North American CEO profiles often referenced the CEO's public life outside business dealings, including social and political stances and involvement. [62]

Employees also engage in impression management behaviors to conceal or reveal personal stigmas. How these individuals approach their disclosure of the stigma(s) impacts coworker's perceptions of the individual, as well as the individual's perception of themselves, and thus affects likeability amongst coworkers and supervisors. [72]

On a smaller scale, many individuals choose to participate in professional impression management beyond the sphere of their own workplace. This may take place through informal networking (either face-to-face or using computer-mediated communication) or channels built to connect professionals, such as professional associations, or job-related social media sites, like LinkedIn.  

Implications

Impression management can distort the results of empirical research that relies on interviews and surveys, a phenomenon commonly referred to as "social desirability bias". Impression management theory nevertheless constitutes a field of research on its own. [73] When it comes to practical questions concerning public relations and the way organizations should handle their public image, the assumptions provided by impression management theory can also provide a framework. [74]

An examination of different impression management strategies acted out by individuals who were facing criminal trials where the trial outcomes could range from a death sentence, life in prison or acquittal has been reported in the forensic literature. [75] The Perri and Lichtenwald article examined female psychopathic killers, whom as a group were highly motivated to manage the impression that attorneys, judges, mental health professions and ultimately, a jury had of the murderers and the murder they committed. It provides legal case illustrations of the murderers combining and/or switching from one impression management strategy such as ingratiation or supplication to another as they worked towards their goal of diminishing or eliminating any accountability for the murders they committed.

Since the 1990s, researchers in the area of sport and exercise psychology have studied self-presentation. Concern about how one is perceived has been found to be relevant to the study of athletic performance. For example, anxiety may be produced when an athlete is in the presence of spectators. Self-presentational concerns have also been found to be relevant to exercise. For example, the concerns may elicit motivation to exercise. [76]

More recent research investigating the effects of impression management on social behaviour showed that social behaviours (e.g. eating) can serve to convey a desired impression to others and enhance one's self-image. Research on eating has shown that people tend to eat less when they believe that they are being observed by others. [77]

See also

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 3 4 Sanaria, A. D. (2016). A conceptual framework for understanding the impression management strategies used by women in indian organizations. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 3(1), 25-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093716631118 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299373178_A_Conceptual_Framework_for_Understanding_the_Impression_Management_Strategies_Used_by_Women_in_Indian_Organizations
  2. ↑ Bolino, Mark C.; Kacmar, K. Michele; Turnley, William H.; Gilstrap, J. Bruce (December 2008). "A Multi-Level Review of Impression Management Motives and Behaviors". Journal of Management. 34 (6): 1080–1109. doi:10.1177/0149206308324325. ISSN   0149-2063. S2CID   145569166.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Browning, Larry D.; Saetre, Alf Steinar; Stephens, Keri; Sornes, Jan-Oddvar (2010-09-28). Information and Communication Technologies in Action: Linking Theories and Narratives of Practice. Routledge. ISBN   9781135889432.
  4. ↑ Kamau, C. (2009) Strategising impression management in corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing, management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. ISBN   978-1-60566-790-4
  5. ↑ Doering 1999, p. 261-2.
  6. ↑ Anderson, E; Siegel, EH; Bliss-Moreau, E; Barrett, LF (Jun 2011). "The visual impact of gossip". Science. 332 (6036): 1446–8. Bibcode:2011Sci...332.1446A. doi:10.1126/science.1201574. PMC   3141574 . PMID   21596956.
  7. ↑ "What is Impression Management?". wiseGEEK. 22 July 2023.
  8. ↑ Baumeister, Roy F. (1987). "Self-Presentation Theory: Self-Construction and Audience Pleasing". In Mullen, Brian; Goethals, George R. (eds.). Theories of Group Behavior. Springer Series in Social Psychology. pp. 71–87.
  9. ↑ Millon, Theodore (2003). Handbook of Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 337. ISBN   978-0-471-38404-5.
  10. ↑ Schlenker 1980, p. 169.
  11. ↑ Felson 1984, p. 187.
  12. ↑ ARKIN, ROBERT M. (1981), "Self-Presentation Styles", Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research, Elsevier, pp. 311–333, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-685180-9.50020-8, ISBN   9780126851809
  13. ↑ Piwinger, Manfred; Ebert, Helmut (2001). "Impression Management: Wie aus Niemand Jemand wird". in: Bentele, Guenther et al. (Ed.), Kommunikationsmanagement: Strategien, Wissen, Lösungen. Luchterhand, Neuwied.
  14. ↑ Leary; Kowalski 1990.
  15. ↑ Hass 1981
  16. ↑ Frishberg, Hannah (2019-09-19). "Plenty of Fish and other apps are going 'filter-free'". New York Post. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  17. 1 2 3 Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Chicago: Aldine.
  18. ↑ Goffman, 1959, p.8
  19. ↑ Dillard et al., 2000
  20. ↑ Schlenker 1980, p. 34.
  21. ↑ Jacobsen, Michael; Kristiansen, Søren (2015). The Social Thought of Erving Goffman. Thousand Oaks, California. doi:10.4135/9781483381725. ISBN   9781412998031.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  22. ↑ Barnhart, 1994
  23. ↑ Goffman 2006, p. 40.
  24. 1 2 Döring 1999, p. 262.
  25. ↑ Goffman 1956
  26. ↑ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN   978-0-07-144672-3.
  27. ↑ Adrian Furnham (November 18, 2016). "The Machiavellian Boss". Psychology Today.
  28. ↑ Michels, Moritz (November 1, 2020). "The ability to lie and its relations to the dark triad and general intelligence". Personality and Individual Differences. 166. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110195.
  29. ↑ Krause, Diana Eva (August 1, 2012). "Consequences of Manipulation in Organizations: Two Studies on its Effects on Emotions and Relationships". Psychological Reports. 111 (1): 199–218. doi:10.2466/01.21.PR0.111.4.199-218. PMID   23045863. S2CID   7937973.
  30. ↑ Breeden, Christopher J (September 1, 2020). "When you need identity management, people higher in some "dark" personalities can be your most thoughtful and altruistic helpers". Personality and Individual Differences. 163. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110052.
  31. ↑ Pailing, Andrea; Boon, Julian; Egan, Vincent (2014-09-01). "Personality, the Dark Triad and violence". Personality and Individual Differences. The Dark Triad of Personality. 67: 81–86. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.018. ISSN   0191-8869.
  32. ↑ Leary; Kowalski 1990
  33. ↑ Schlenker 1980, p. 47.
  34. 1 2 Schlenker 1980, p. 85.
  35. ↑ Schlenker 1980, p. 69.
  36. ↑ Schlenker 1980, p. 90.
  37. ↑ Moffitt, Kimberly. "Social Interactions: Definition & Types".
  38. ↑ Brown, Jonathon. "CHAPTER 07 SELF-PRESENTATION" (PDF).
  39. 1 2 Rosenfeld, Paul; Giacalone, Robert A.; Riordan, Catherine A. (1994-03-01). "Impression Management Theory and Diversity Lessons for Organizational Behavior". American Behavioral Scientist. 37 (5): 601–604. doi:10.1177/0002764294037005002. ISSN   0002-7642. S2CID   145797383.
  40. 1 2 Norris, Ashley (2011). "Impression Management: Considering Cultural, Social, and Spiritual Factors". Inquiries Journal. 3 (7).
  41. ↑ Dijck, van (2008). Digital photography: communication, identity, memory.
  42. 1 2 3 4 Lewin, Simon; Reeves, Scott (2011-05-01). "Enacting 'team' and 'teamwork': using Goffman's theory of impression management to illuminate interprofessional practice on hospital wards". Social Science & Medicine. 72 (10): 1595–1602. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.037. ISSN   1873-5347. PMID   21549467.
  43. ↑ Walther, Joseph B. (2007-09-01). "Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and cognition" (PDF). Computers in Human Behavior. 23 (5): 2538–2557. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.002. S2CID   14663755.
  44. ↑ Feaster, John Christian (2010-10-01). "Expanding the Impression Management Model of Communication Channels: An Information Control Scale". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 16 (1): 115–138. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01535.x . ISSN   1083-6101.
  45. 1 2 Sara Spear; Stuart Roper (2013-11-01). "Using corporate stories to build the corporate brand: an impression management perspective" (PDF). Journal of Product & Brand Management. 22 (7): 491–501. doi:10.1108/JPBM-09-2013-0387. ISSN   1061-0421.
  46. ↑ Bartsch, Miriam; Subrahmanyam, Kaveri (2015-03-13), "Technology and Self-Presentation", The Wiley Handbook of Psychology, Technology, and Society, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 339–357, doi:10.1002/9781118771952.ch19, ISBN   978-1-118-77195-2
  47. ↑ Pratt, Laurie A. "Impression Management in Organizational E-Mail Communication". Department of Speech Communication.
  48. ↑ Tashmin, Nushrat (2016). "Art of Impression Management on Social media" (PDF).
  49. 1 2 "Social Media Fact Sheet". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
  50. 1 2 Rui, J. and M. A. Stefanone (2013). Strategic Management of Other-Provided Information Online: Personality and Network Variables. System Sciences (HICSS), 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on.
  51. ↑ Krämer, Nicole C.; Winter, Stephan (2008-01-01). "Impression Management 2.0". Journal of Media Psychology. 20 (3): 106–116. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.20.3.106. ISSN   1864-1105. S2CID   207609173.
  52. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ashlee., Humphreys (2016). Social media : enduring principles. Oxford. ISBN   9780199328437. OCLC   908698924.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  53. 1 2 Park, Namkee; Lee, Seungyoon (2014-10-02). "College Students' Motivations for Facebook Use and Psychological Outcomes". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 58 (4): 601–620. doi:10.1080/08838151.2014.966355. ISSN   0883-8151. S2CID   144193189.
  54. ↑ Bergagna, Elisa; Tartaglia, Stefano (November 2018). "Self-Esteem, Social Comparison, and Facebook Use". Europe's Journal of Psychology. 14 (4): 831–845. doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i4.1592. ISSN   1841-0413. PMC   6266525 . PMID   30555588.
  55. 1 2 Loss, J.; Lindacher, V.; Curbach, J. (2014-04-01). "Do Social Networking Sites Enhance the Attractiveness of Risky Health Behavior? Impression Management in Adolescents' Communication on Facebook and its Ethical Implications". Public Health Ethics. 7 (1): 5–16. doi:10.1093/phe/pht028. ISSN   1754-9973.
  56. ↑ Sharabati, Abdel-Aziz Ahmad; Al-Haddad, Shafig; Al-Khasawneh, Mohammad; Nababteh, Natalie; Mohammad, Mai; Abu Ghoush, Qais (September 2022). "The Impact of TikTok User Satisfaction on Continuous Intention to Use the Application". Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity. 8 (3): 125. doi: 10.3390/joitmc8030125 . hdl: 10419/274426 . ISSN   2199-8531.
  57. ↑ Al-Shatti, Esraa; Ohana, Marc; Odou, Philippe; Zaitouni, Michel (January 2022). "Impression Management on Instagram and Unethical Behavior: The Role of Gender and Social Media Fatigue". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (16): 9808. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19169808 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   9408035 . PMID   36011435.
  58. ↑ Marwick, Alice E. (2013). Online Identity (PDF). Blackwell. pp. 355–364.
  59. ↑ Proudfoot, Jeffrey G.; Wilson, David; Valacich, Joseph S.; Byrd, Michael D. (2018-01-02). "Saving face on Facebook: privacy concerns, social benefits, and impression management". Behaviour & Information Technology. 37 (1): 16–37. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2017.1389988. ISSN   0144-929X. S2CID   17497065.
  60. ↑ Faculty of Arts and Creative Industries, Middlesex University, London; Šimunjak, Maja; Sinčić Ćorić, Dubravka; Brečić, Ružica; Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb (December 2017). "Political Impression Management Through Direct and Mediated Communication: The 2014/2015 Croatian Presidential Elections". Drustvena Istrazivanja. 26 (4). doi: 10.5559/di.26.4.05 .{{cite journal}}: |last5= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ↑ Landtsheer, Christ'l De; De Vries, Philippe; Vertessen, Dieter (2008-09-15). "Political Impression Management: How Metaphors, Sound Bites, Appearance Effectiveness, and Personality Traits Can Win Elections". Journal of Political Marketing. 7 (3–4): 217–238. doi: 10.1080/15377850802005083 . ISSN   1537-7857. S2CID   144530955.
  62. 1 2 Pollach, I.; Kerbler, E. (2011-10-01). "Appearing Competent: A Study of Impression Management in U.S. and European CEO Profiles". Journal of Business Communication. 48 (4): 355–372. doi:10.1177/0021943611414687. ISSN   0021-9436. S2CID   154399078.
  63. ↑ Sanaria, A. D. (2016). A conceptual framework for understanding the impression management strategies used by women in indian organizations. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 3(1), 25-39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299373178_A_Conceptual_Framework_for_Understanding_the_Impression_Management_Strategies_Used_by_Women_in_Indian_Organizations
  64. 1 2 "Leadership Presence at Work: A Practice – Oriented Framework". Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness. 13 (3). 2019-09-11. doi: 10.33423/jmdc.v13i3.2241 . ISSN   2155-2843.
  65. ↑ Karl, Katherine A.; Hall, Leda McIntyre; Peluchette, Joy V. (2013). "City Employee Perceptions of the Impact of Dress and Appearance: You Are What You Wear". Public Personnel Management. 42 (3): 452–470. doi:10.1177/0091026013495772. ISSN   0091-0260. S2CID   154353863.
  66. 1 2 3 4 Peck, Jessica A.; Hogue, Mary (February 2018). "Acting with the best of intentions… or not: A typology and model of impression management in leadership". The Leadership Quarterly. 29 (1): 123–134. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.10.001.
  67. ↑ Carlson, John R.; Carlson, Dawn S.; Ferguson, Merideth (2011). "Deceptive Impression Management: Does Deception Pay in Established Workplace Relationships?". Journal of Business Ethics. 100 (3): 497–514. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0693-9. ISSN   0167-4544. S2CID   143893862.
  68. ↑ Long, David M. (2021-02-01). "Tacticality, Authenticity, or Both? The Ethical Paradox of Actor Ingratiation and Target Trust Reactions". Journal of Business Ethics. 168 (4): 847–860. doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3. ISSN   1573-0697. S2CID   199160989.
  69. 1 2 Foulk, Trevor A.; Long, David M. (2016). "Impressed by Impression Management: Newcomer Reactions to Ingratiated Supervisors". Journal of Applied Psychology. 101 (10): 1487–1497. doi:10.1037/apl0000146. PMID   27504656.
  70. 1 2 Bourdage, Joshua S.; Wiltshire, Jocelyn; Lee, Kibeom (2015). "Personality and workplace impression management: Correlates and implications". Journal of Applied Psychology. 100 (2): 537–546. doi:10.1037/a0037942. ISSN   1939-1854. PMID   25243995.
  71. 1 2 3 Long, David M. (2021-02-01). "Tacticality, Authenticity, or Both? The Ethical Paradox of Actor Ingratiation and Target Trust Reactions". Journal of Business Ethics. 168 (4): 847–860. doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3. ISSN   1573-0697. S2CID   199160989.
  72. ↑ Lynch, John W.; Rodell, Jessica B. (2018). "Blend In or Stand Out? Interpersonal Outcomes of Managing Concealable Stigmas at Work". Journal of Applied Psychology. 103 (12): 1307–1323. doi:10.1037/apl0000342. PMID   30070542.
  73. ↑ Tedeschi 1984
  74. ↑ Piwinger; Ebert 2001, p. 3.
  75. ↑ Perri, Frank S. and Lichtenwald, Terrance G. (2010). "The Last Frontier: Myths & The Female Psychopathic Killer". Forensic Examiner, Summer 2010, 50-67.
  76. ↑ Martin Ginis, K.A., Lindwall, M., & Prapavessis, H. (2007). Who cares what other people think? Self-presentation in exercise and sport. In R. Eklund & G. Tenenbaum (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 136–153). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiles & Sons.
  77. ↑ Herman; Roth; Polivy 2003

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public relations</span> Management of public communication of organizations

Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an individual or an organization to the public in order to influence their perception. Public relations and publicity differ in that PR is controlled internally, whereas publicity is not controlled and contributed by external parties. Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. The exposure is mostly media-based, and this differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations aims to create or obtain coverage for clients for free, also known as earned media, rather than paying for marketing or advertising also known as paid media. But in the early 21st century, advertising is also a part of broader PR activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erving Goffman</span> Sociologist, writer, and academic (1922–1982)

Erving Goffman was a Canadian-born American sociologist, social psychologist, and writer, considered by some "the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century".

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is defined as any human communication that occurs through the use of two or more electronic devices. While the term has traditionally referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats, it has also been applied to other forms of text-based interaction such as text messaging. Research on CMC focuses largely on the social effects of different computer-supported communication technologies. Many recent studies involve Internet-based social networking supported by social software.

Reputation management, originally a public relations term, refers to the influencing, controlling, enhancing, or concealing of an individual's or group's reputation. The growth of the internet and social media led to growth of reputation management companies, with search results as a core part of a client's reputation. Online reputation management, sometimes abbreviated as ORM, focuses on the management of product and service search engine results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dramaturgy (sociology)</span> Sociological perspective

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that analyzes micro-sociological accounts of everyday social interactions through the analogy of performativity and theatrical dramaturgy, dividing such interactions between "actors", "audience" members, and various "front" and "back" stages.

In marketing, promotion refers to any type of marketing communication used to inform target audiences of the relative merits of a product, service, brand or issue, persuasively. It helps marketers to create a distinctive place in customers' mind, it can be either a cognitive or emotional route. The aim of promotion is to increase brand awareness, create interest, generate sales or create brand loyalty. It is one of the basic elements of the market mix, which includes the four Ps, i.e., product, price, place, and promotion.

In media studies, mass communication, media psychology, communication theory, and sociology, media influence and themedia effect are topics relating to mass media and media culture's effects on individuals' or audiences' thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. Through written, televised, or spoken channels, mass media reach large audiences. Mass media's role in shaping modern culture is a central issue for the study of culture.

<i>The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life</i> 1956 book by Erving Goffman

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life is a 1956 sociological book by Erving Goffman, in which the author uses the imagery of theatre to portray the importance of human social interaction. This approach became known as Goffman's dramaturgical analysis.

The uncertainty reduction theory, also known as initial interaction theory, developed in 1975 by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, is a communication theory from the post-positivist tradition. It is one of the few communication theories that specifically looks into the initial interaction between people prior to the actual communication process. Uncertainty reduction theory originators' main goal when constructing it was to explain how communication is used to reduce uncertainty between strangers during a first interaction. Berger explains uncertainty reduction theory as an "Increased knowledge of what kind of person another is, which provides an improved forecast of how a future interaction will turn out". Uncertainty reduction theory claims that everyone activates two processes in order to reduce uncertainty. The first being a proactive process, which focuses on what someone might do. The second being a retroactive process, which focuses on how people understand what another does or says. This theory's main claim is that people must receive information about another party in order to reduce their uncertainty and, that people want to do so. While uncertainty reduction theory claims that communication will lead to reduced uncertainty, it is important to note that this is not always the case. Dr. Dale E. Brashers of the University of Illinois argues that in some scenarios, more communication may lead to greater uncertainty.

Personal branding is a strategic process aimed at creating, positioning, and maintaining a positive public perception of oneself by leveraging unique individual characteristics and presenting a differentiated narrative to a target audience. The concept draws from two main theoretical foundations: marketing theory and self-presentation behaviors. Marketing-based definitions frame personal branding using terms such as “product,” “added value,” and “promise”, likening it to the branding of products and focusing on differentiation and market positioning. In contrast, self-presentation definitions emphasize personal identity, reputation, and image management, highlighting how individuals project themselves to shape public perception. Success in personal branding is viewed as the result of effective self-packaging. It is more about self-promotion rather than true self-expression. The difference between the two is that self-promotion is deliberately intentional in all aspects because the individual is purposely shaping their image or persona, while self-expression can even be a byproduct of promotion.

Corporate communication(s) is a set of activities involved in managing and orchestrating all internal and external communications aimed at creating a favourable point of view among stakeholders on which a company depends. It is the messages issued by a corporate organization, body or institute to its audiences, such as employees, media, channel partners and the general public. Organizations aim to communicate the same message to all its stakeholders, to transmit coherence, credibility and ethics.

The social penetration theory (SPT) proposes that as relationships develop, interpersonal communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more intimate ones. The theory was formulated by psychologists Irwin Altman of the University of Utah and Dalmas Taylor of the University of Delaware in 1973 to understand relationship development between individuals. Altman and Taylor noted that relationships "involve different levels of intimacy of exchange or degree of social penetration". SPT is known as an objective theory as opposed to an interpretive theory, meaning it is based on data drawn from actual experiments and not simply from conclusions based on individuals' specific experiences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social information processing (theory)</span> Theory of human interactions

Social information processing theory, also known as SIP, is a psychological and sociological theory originally developed by Salancik and Pfeffer in 1978. This theory explores how individuals make decisions and form attitudes in a social context, often focusing on the workplace. It suggests that people rely heavily on the social information available to them in their environments, including input from colleagues and peers, to shape their attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions.

The hyperpersonal model is a model of interpersonal communication that suggests computer-mediated communication (CMC) can become hyperpersonal because it "exceeds [face-to-face] interaction", thus affording message senders a host of communicative advantages over traditional face-to-face (FtF) interaction. The hyperpersonal model demonstrates how individuals communicate uniquely, while representing themselves to others, how others interpret them, and how the interactions create a reciprocal spiral of FtF communication. Compared to ordinary FtF situations, a hyperpersonal message sender has a greater ability to strategically develop and edit self-presentation, enabling a selective and optimized presentation of one's self to others.

Ingratiating is a psychological technique in which an individual attempts to influence another person by becoming more likeable to their target. This term was coined by social psychologist Edward E. Jones, who further defined ingratiating as "a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to influence a particular other person concerning the attractiveness of one's personal qualities." Ingratiation research has identified some specific tactics of employing ingratiation:

Impression formation in social psychology refers to the processes by which different pieces of knowledge about another are combined into a global or summary impression. Social psychologist Solomon Asch is credited with the seminal research on impression formation and conducted research on how individuals integrate information about personality traits. Two major theories have been proposed to explain how this process of integration takes place. The Gestalt approach views the formation of a general impression as the sum of several interrelated impressions. As an individual seeks to form a coherent and meaningful impression of another individual, previous impressions significantly influence the interpretation of subsequent information. In contrast to the Gestalt approach, the cognitive algebra approach asserts that individuals' experiences are combined with previous evaluations to form a constantly changing impression of a person. A related area to impression formation is the study of person perception, making dispositional attributions, and then adjusting those inferences based on the information available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Identity management theory</span>

Identity management theory is an intercultural communication theory from the 1990s. It was developed by William R. Cupach and Tadasu Todd Imahori on the basis of Erving Goffman's Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior (1967). Cupach and Imahori distinguish between intercultural communication and intracultural communication.

Stigma management is the process of concealing or disclosing aspects of one's identity to minimize social stigma.

The multiple audience dilemma is a communication theory that describes what happens when a person creates different images of themselves when communicating with different audiences. For instance, a study examined what happens when participants are asked to appear as a "nerd" to one audience and a "party animal" to another.

Context collapse or "the flattening of multiple audiences into a single context" is a term arising out of the study of human interaction on the internet, especially within social media. Context collapse "generally occurs when a surfeit of different audiences occupy the same space, and a piece of information intended for one audience finds its way to another" with that new audience's reaction being uncharitable and highly negative for failing to understand the original context.

References

  1. ↑ "A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Impression Management Strategies Used by Women in Indian Organizations" . Retrieved 2022-03-21.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.