Islamic ornament

Last updated
Geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic patterns ornamenting the Mihrab at the Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Mihrab at Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri.jpg
Geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic patterns ornamenting the Mihrab at the Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri

Islamic ornament is the use of decorative forms and patterns in Islamic art and Islamic architecture. Its elements can be broadly divided into the arabesque, using curving plant-based elements, geometric patterns with straight lines or regular curves, and calligraphy, consisting of religious texts with stylized appearance, used both decoratively and to convey meaning. All three often involve elaborate interlacing in various mediums.

Contents

Islamic ornament has had a significant influence on European decorative art forms, especially as seen in the Western arabesque.

Overview

Geometric Zellij tilework, stucco decoration with Arabic calligraphy and arabesques at Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes Abu 'Inaniya.jpg
Geometric Zellij tilework, stucco decoration with Arabic calligraphy and arabesques at Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes

Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avoid becoming objects of worship. [1] [2] This aniconism in Islamic culture encouraged artists to explore non-figural art, creating a general aesthetic shift toward mathematically-based decoration. [3] Even before the preaching of Islam, the regions associated with the Islamic world today showed a preference for geometric and stylized vegetal decoration. As early as the fourth century, Byzantine architecture showcased influential forms of abstract ornament in stonework. Sasanian artists were influential in part through their experimentation with stucco as a decorative medium.

The Islamic geometric patterns derived from designs used in earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, and Sasanian. They are one of three forms of Islamic decoration, the others being the arabesque based on curving and branching plant forms, and Islamic calligraphy; all three are frequently used together, in mediums such as mosaic, stucco, brickwork, and ceramics, to decorate religious buildings and objects. [4] [5] [6] [7]

Authors such as Keith Critchlow [lower-alpha 1] argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality, rather than being mere decoration, as writers interested only in pattern sometimes imply. [8] [9] In Islamic culture, the patterns are believed to be the bridge to the spiritual realm, the instrument to purify the mind and the soul. [10] David Wade [lower-alpha 2] states that "Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation." [11] Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure, turning mosques "into lightness and pattern", while "the decorated pages of a Qur’an can become windows onto the infinite." [11] Against this, Doris Behrens-Abouseif [lower-alpha 3] states in her book Beauty in Arabic Culture that a "major difference" between the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the beautiful are separated in Arabic culture. She argues that beauty, whether in poetry or in the visual arts, was enjoyed "for its own sake, without commitment to religious or moral criteria". [12]

Arabesque

Stone relief with arabesques of tendrils, palmettes and half-palmettes in the Umayyad Mosque at Damascus Flickr - jemasmith - Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Detail..jpg
Stone relief with arabesques of tendrils, palmettes and half-palmettes in the Umayyad Mosque at Damascus

The Islamic arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, [13] often combined with other elements. It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. [14] This technique, which emerged thanks to artistic interest in older geometric compositions in Late Antique art, made it possible for the viewer to imagine what the pattern would look like if it continued beyond its actual limits. This is a characteristic which made it distinctive to Islamic art. [15]

The fully "geometricized" arabesques appeared in the 10th century. [15] The vegetal forms commonly used within the patterns, such as acanthus leaves, grapes, and more abstract palmettes, were initially derived from Late Antique and Sasanian art. The Sasanians characteristic use of the scrolling vine as a decorative element derived from the Romans through Byzantine art. In the Islamic period, this vine scroll evolved into the arabesque. [16] The vine ornament which is popular in Islamic ornament is believed to come out of Hellenistic and early Christian art. [17] [18] However, the vine scroll has experienced stylistic changes which has transformed the vine pattern into a more abstract ornament with only remnants of the Hellenistic model. Additional motifs, such as flowers, began to be added towards the 14th century. [15]

From the 14th century onward, the geometrically-configured arabesque began to be displaced by freer vegetal motifs inspired by Chinese art and by the Saz style that became popular in Ottoman art during the 16th century. [15]

Geometric patterns

Girih geometric pattern at the Darb-e Imam, Isfahan Darb-i Imam shrine spandrel.JPG
Girih geometric pattern at the Darb-e Imam, Isfahan

The historic world of Islamic art is widely known to be the most proficient in its use of geometric patterns for artistic expression. [16] Islamic geometric patterns developed in two different regions. Those locations being in the eastern regions of Persia, Transoxiana, and Khurasan, and in the western regions of Morocco and Andalusia. [19] The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and circles, which may be overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques, with which they are often combined, to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations. These may constitute the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through a variety of 6- to 13-point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include also 14- and 16-point stars in the sixteenth century. [4] [20] [5] [21] Geometric forms such as circles, squares, rhombs, dodecagons, and stars vary in their representation and configuration across the world of Islam.

Geometric patterns occur in a variety of forms in Islamic art and architecture including kilim carpets, [22] Persian girih [23] and western zellij tilework, [24] [25] muqarnas decorative vaulting, [26] jali pierced stone screens, [27] ceramics, [28] leather, [29] stained glass, [30] [31] woodwork, [32] and metalwork. [33] [34]

Calligraphy

Bowl decorated with Kufic calligraphy, 10th century Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century.jpg
Bowl decorated with Kufic calligraphy, 10th century

Calligraphy is a central element of Islamic art, combining aesthetic appeal and religious message. Sometimes it is the dominant form of ornament; at other times it is combined with arabesque. [35] The importance of the written word in Islam ensured that epigraphic or calligraphic decoration played a prominent role in architecture. [36] Calligraphy is used to ornament buildings such as mosques, madrasas, and mausoleums; wooden objects such as caskets; and ceramics such as tiles and bowls. [37] [38]

Epigraphic decoration can also indicate further political or religious messages through the selection of a textual program of inscriptions. [39] For example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations from the Qur'an that reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature (e.g. Quran 19:33–35), the oneness of God (e.g. Qur'an 112), and the role of Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets", which have been interpreted as an attempt to announce the rejection of the Christian concept of the Holy Trinity and to proclaim the triumph of Islam over Christianity and Judaism. [40] [41] [42] Additionally, foundation inscriptions on buildings commonly indicate its founder or patron, the date of its construction, the name of the reigning sovereign, and other information. [36]

The earliest examples of epigraphic inscriptions in Islamic art demonstrate a more unplanned approach in which calligraphy is not integrated with other decoration. [43] In the 10th century, a new approach to writing emerged. Ibn Muqla is known as the originator of the khatt al-mansub, or proportioned script style. [44] [ failed verification ] "Khatt," meaning the "marking out," emphasized calligraphic writing's physical demarcation of space. This concept of rationalizing space is inherent in Islamic ornament. [43] By the 9th and 10th centuries inscriptions were fully integrated into the rest of an object or building's decorative program, and by the 14th century they became the dominant decorative feature on many objects. [43] The most common style of script during the early period was Kufic, in which straight angular lines dominated. In monumental inscriptions, certain flourishes were added over time to create variations such as "floriated" Kufic (in which flower or tendril forms spring from the letters) or "knotted" Kufic (in which some letters form interlacing knots). [45] However, the elaboration of Kufic scripts also made them less legible, which led to the adoption of rounder "cursive" scripts in architectural decoration, such as Naskh, Thuluth, and others. These scripts first appeared on monuments in the 11th century, initially for religious inscriptions but then for other inscriptions as well. Cursive scripts underwent further elaborations over the following centuries while Kufic was relegated to a secondary role. Inscriptions became longer and more crowded as more information was included and more titles were added to the names of patrons. [45]

Influence on Western ornament

Seven Western arabesque panels, Farnsborough, England. Drawings by Jules Lachaise and Eugene-Pierre Gourdet, 1880-1886 Design for Seven Vertical Panels of Arabesque Decoration, Farnsborough, England MET 67.827.22.jpg
Seven Western arabesque panels, Farnsborough, England. Drawings by Jules Lachaise and Eugène-Pierre Gourdet, 1880–1886

A Western style of ornament based on Islamic arabesque developed in Europe, starting in late 15th century Venice; it has been called either moresque or western arabesque. It has been used in a great variety of the decorative arts, especially in book design and bookbinding. [46] More recently, William Morris of the Arts and Crafts movement was influenced by all three types of Islamic ornament. [47]

Theories of Islamic ornament

The representation of pattern is one of the earliest forms of artistic expression; however, scientific and theoretical studies on pattern are a relatively recent development. The systematic study of their properties and significance emerged in the late 19th century. Theories on ornament can be located in the writings of Alois Reigl, William Morris, John Ruskin, Carl Semper, and Viollet-le-Duc.

Oleg Grabar is one of the theorists to engage with ornament's capacity to evoke thought and interpretation. He argues that ornament is used not merely as embellishment but an intermediary for making and seeing. Furthermore, its decorative qualities seem to complete an object by providing it with quality. This "quality" is the feeling transmitted through ornament's visual messages.

Owen Jones, in his book The Grammar of Ornament (1856), proposes theories on color, geometry, and abstraction. One of his guiding principles states that all ornament is based on a geometric construction. [48]

Granada, Alhambra, Hall of the Two Sisters, muqarnas ceiling. Alhambra Hall of Two Sisters DSCF6972.jpg
Granada, Alhambra, Hall of the Two Sisters, muqarnas ceiling.

Ernst Gombrich emphasizes the practical effects of ornament as framing, filling, and linking. [49] He deems the most meaningful aspects of art to be non-ornamental, which stems from a preference to Western representational art. Geometric pattern in Islamic ornament involves this filling of space, technically described as "'tessellation through isometry.'" [44] The primary objective for geometric patterns "filling" of space is to enhance it. In his book,The Meditation on Ornament, Oleg Grabar departs from Gombrich's European-influenced position to show how ornament can be the subject of a design. He differentiates between filling a space with design, and transforming a space through design.

Iran, Kharraqan, mausoleum, 1087, back. Kharaghan.jpg
Iran, Kharraqan, mausoleum, 1087, back.

Grabar calls attention to the "iconophoric quality" of ornament. His use of the word "iconophoric" connotes "indicative" or "expressive." Regarding ornament for its own sake undermines its subjectivity. Geometric forms can be fashioned as subjects through their ability to communicate or enhance iconographic, semiotic, or symbolic meaning. Ornament in the Islamic work is used to convey the essence of an identifiable message or specific messages themselves. The richly textured geometric forms in the Alhambra function as a passageway, an essence, for viewers to meditate on life and afterlife. [44] One example of the use of geometry to indicate a specific message is visible over the entrance of one of the Kharraqan towers, where star-shaped polygons frame the word "Allah" (God).

The development of vegetal ornament from Egypt, the ancient Near East, and the Hellenistic world culminated in the Islamic arabesque. [3] Vegetal ornament is the suggestion of evocation of life as opposed to the representation of it. Its organic, rhythmic lines create an essence of growth and movement.

A common misconception in understanding the arabesque is resigning it to purely religious messages. This implies that the Islamic use of ornament emerged as a stylistic response to a rejection of idol or icon worship. Although ornament is used as a vehicle towards sacred contemplation and union with God, it is not confined to this function.

Notes

  1. ↑ Critchlow is a professor of architecture, and the author of a book on Islamic patterns.
  2. ↑ Wade is the author of a series of books on pattern in various artforms.
  3. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif is a professor of the history of art and architecture at SOAS.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arabesque</span> Decorative pattern of stylized foliage, characteristic of Muslim art

The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems". It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term "arabesque" is used consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the Renaissance onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic art</span> Visual art forms associated with Muslims

Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslim populations. Referring to characteristic traditions across a wide range of lands, periods, and genres, Islamic art is a concept used first by Western art historians in the late 19th century. Public Islamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling arabesque. These are often combined with Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. Other forms of Islamic art include Islamic miniature painting, artefacts like Islamic glass or pottery, and textile arts, such as carpets and embroidery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religious art</span> Art with religious subjects

Religious art is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for worship and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, artworks that are inspired by religion but are not considered traditionally sacred remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic architecture</span> Architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam

Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimes different religious affiliations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic calligraphy</span> Artistic practice of calligraphy in Islamic contexts

Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the alphabets derived from it. It includes Arabic, Persian, Ottoman, and Urdu calligraphy. It is known in Arabic as khatt Arabi, which translates into Arabic line, design, or construction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kharraqan towers</span> 11th-century twinned domes in Avaj County, Qazvin Province, Iran

The Kharraqan towers are a pair of mausolea built in 1067 and 1093, in the Kharraqan region of northern Iran, near Qazvin. They are notable for being an early example of geometric ornament, an early example of double domes, and one of the earlier tomb towers that appeared in the Seljuk period of medieval Iran during the 11th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iranian architecture</span> Architecture associated with Iran

Iranian architecture or Persian architecture is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Persian buildings vary greatly in scale and function, from vernacular architecture to monumental complexes. In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ben Youssef Madrasa</span> Historic monument in Marrakesh, Morocco

The Ben Youssef Madrasa is an Islamic madrasa (college) in Marrakesh, Morocco. Functioning today as a historical site, the Ben Youssef Madrasa was the largest Islamic college in the Maghreb at its height. The madrasa is named after the adjacent Ben Youssef Mosque built by the Almoravid Sultan Ali ibn Yusuf in the early 12th century, and was commissioned by the Saadian Sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib in the 16th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mudéjar art</span> Art style in post-Islamic Spain

Mudéjar art, or Mudéjar style, was a type of ornamentation and decoration used in the Iberian Christian kingdoms, primarily between the 13th and 16th centuries. It was applied to Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance architectural styles as constructive, ornamental and decorative motifs derived from those that had been brought to or developed in Al-Andalus. These motifs and techniques were also present in the art and crafts, especially Hispano-Moresque lustreware that was once widely exported across Europe from southern and eastern Spain at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kufic</span> Style of Arabic script

The Kufic script is a style of Arabic script that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts. It developed from the Arabic alphabet in the city of Kufa, from which its name is derived. Kufic is characterized by angular, rectilinear letterforms and its horizontal orientation. There are many different versions of Kufic, such as square Kufic, floriated Kufic, knotted Kufic, and others. The artistic styling of Kufic led to its use in a non-Arabic context in Europe, as decoration on architecture, known as pseudo-Kufic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moroccan architecture</span> Architecture in Morocco

Moroccan architecture reflects Morocco's diverse geography and long history, marked by successive waves of settlers through both migration and military conquest. This architectural heritage includes ancient Roman sites, historic Islamic architecture, local vernacular architecture, 20th-century French colonial architecture, and modern architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moorish architecture</span> Architectural style historically developed in the western Islamic world

Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world, including al-Andalus and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition by a more geographic designation, such as architecture of the Islamic West or architecture of the Western Islamic lands. The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "Moors". Some references on Islamic art and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture</span> Decorative technique

Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture refers to carved or molded stucco and plaster. The terms "stucco" and "plaster" are used almost interchangeably in this context to denote most types of stucco or plaster decoration with slightly varying compositions. This decoration was mainly used to cover walls and surfaces and the main motifs were those predominant in Islamic art: geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic, as well as three-dimensional muqarnas. Plaster of gypsum composition was extremely important in Islamic architectural decoration as the relatively dry climate throughout much of the Islamic world made it easy to use this cheap and versatile material in a variety of spaces.

<i>Zellij</i> Mosaic tile decoration

Zellij is a style of mosaic tilework made from individually hand-chiseled tile pieces. The pieces were typically of different colours and fitted together to form various patterns on the basis of tessellations, most notably elaborate Islamic geometric motifs such as radiating star patterns. This form of Islamic art is one of the main characteristics of architecture in the western Islamic world. It is found in the architecture of Morocco, the architecture of Algeria, early Islamic sites in Tunisia, and in the historic monuments of al-Andalus. From the 14th century onwards, zellij became a standard decorative element along lower walls, in fountains and pools, on minarets, and for the paving of floors.

<i>Girih</i> Geometric patterns in Islamic architecture

Girih are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Attarine Madrasa</span> Historic madrasa in Fez, Morocco

The Al-Attarine Madrasa or Medersa al-Attarine is a madrasa in Fes, Morocco, near the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque. It was built by the Marinid sultan Uthman II Abu Said in 1323-5. The madrasa takes its name from the Souk al-Attarine, the spice and perfume market. It is considered one of the highest achievements of Marinid architecture due to its rich and harmonious decoration and its efficient use of limited space.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic geometric patterns</span> Geometric pattern characteristic of Muslim art

Islamic geometric patterns are one of the major forms of Islamic ornament, which tends to avoid using figurative images, as it is forbidden to create a representation of an important Islamic figure according to many holy scriptures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interlace (art)</span> Decorative crossing patterns in art

In the visual arts, interlace is a decorative element found in medieval art. In interlace, bands or portions of other motifs are looped, braided, and knotted in complex geometric patterns, often to fill a space. Interlacing is common in the Migration period art of Northern Europe, in the early medieval Insular art of Ireland and the British Isles, and Norse art of the Early Middle Ages, and in Islamic art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic influences on Western art</span>

Islamic influences on Western art refers to the stylistic and formal influence of Islamic art, defined as the artistic production of the territories ruled by Muslims from the 7th century onward, on European Christian art. Western European Christians interacted with Muslims in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East and formed a relationship based on shared ideas and artistic methods. Islamic art includes a wide variety of media including calligraphy, illustrated manuscripts, textiles, ceramics, metalwork, and glass, and because the Islamic world encompassed people of diverse religious backgrounds, artists and craftsmen were not always Muslim, and came from a wide variety of different backgrounds. Glass production, for example, remained a Jewish speciality throughout the period. Christian art in Islamic lands, such as that produced in Coptic Egypt or by Armenian communities in Iran, continued to develop under Islamic rulers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Portable mihrab from the Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya</span>

The portable mihrab from the Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya dates to the Fatimid period and is crafted entirely from wood. It is notable both because of its wooden construction and because it is not built into a larger permanent structure but is freestanding and can be moved. It was commissioned by al-Sayyida 'Ulam al-Amiriyya, the wife of the Fatimid caliph al-Amir, in the 12th century. The mihrab currently resides in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo, Egypt.

References

  1. ↑ Bouaissa, Malikka (27 July 2013). "The crucial role of geometry in Islamic art". Al Arte Magazine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  2. ↑ Bonner, Jay (2017). Islamic geometric patterns : their historical development and traditional methods of construction. New York: Springer. p. 1. ISBN   978-1-4419-0216-0. OCLC   1001744138.
  3. 1 2 Bier, Carol (Sep 2008). "Art and Mithãl: Reading Geometry as Visual Commentary". Iranian Studies. 41 (4): 491–509. doi:10.1080/00210860802246176. JSTOR   25597484. S2CID   171003353.
  4. 1 2 "Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  5. 1 2 Hankin, Ernest Hanbury (1925). The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No. 15. Government of India Central Publication Branch.
  6. ↑ Baer 1998, p. 41.
  7. ↑ Clevenot 2017, pp. 7–8, 63–112.
  8. ↑ Critchlow, Keith (1976). Islamic Patterns : an analytical and cosmological approach. Thames and Hudson. ISBN   0-500-27071-6.
  9. ↑ Field, Robert (1998). Geometric Patterns from Islamic Art & Architecture. Tarquin Publications. ISBN   978-1-899618-22-4.
  10. ↑ Ahuja, Mangho; Loeb, A. L. (1995). "Tessellations in Islamic Calligraphy". Leonardo. 28 (1): 41–45. doi:10.2307/1576154. JSTOR   1576154. S2CID   191368443.
  11. 1 2 Wade, David. "The Evolution of Style". Pattern in Islamic Art. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2016. Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation. The aim, however, is never merely to ornament, but rather to transfigure. ... The vast edifices of mosques are transformed into lightness and pattern; the decorated pages of a Qur'an can become windows onto the infinite. Perhaps most importantly, the Word, expressed in endless calligraphic variations, always conveys the impression that it is more enduring than the objects on which it is inscribed.
  12. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1999). Beauty in Arabic Culture. Markus Wiener. pp. 7–8. ISBN   978-1-558-76199-5.
  13. ↑ Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (1977). Dictionary of the Decorative Arts . Penguin. ISBN   978-0-670-82047-4.
  14. ↑ Robinson, Francis (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-66993-1.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Bloom & Blair 2009 , pp. 65–66, Chapter: Arabesque
  16. 1 2 Irwin, Robert (1997). Islamic Art in Context. New York, N.Y.: Henry N. Abrams. pp. 20–70. ISBN   0-8109-2710-1.
  17. ↑ Dimand, Maurice S. (1937). "Studies in Islamic Ornament: I. Some Aspects of Omaiyad and Early 'Abbāsid Ornament". Ars Islamica. 4: 293–337. ISSN   1939-6406. JSTOR   25167044.
  18. ↑ "The Heraldic Style", Problems of Style, Princeton University Press, pp. 41–47, 2018-12-04, doi:10.2307/j.ctv7r40hw.9, S2CID   239603192 , retrieved 2022-12-11
  19. ↑ BONNER, JAY (2018). ISLAMIC GEOMETRIC PATTERNS : their historical development and traditional methods of ... construction. SPRINGER-VERLAG NEW YORK. ISBN   978-1-4939-7921-9. OCLC   1085181820.
  20. ↑ Broug, Eric (2008). Islamic Geometric Patterns. Thames and Hudson. pp. 183–185, 193. ISBN   978-0-500-28721-7.
  21. ↑ Abdullahi, Yahya; Bin Embi, Mohamed Rashid (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2): 243–251. doi: 10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002 .
  22. ↑ Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art and how it is Misunderstood in the West – Our Personal Views". Salon du Tapis d'Orient. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  23. ↑ "Gereh-Sazi". Tebyan. 20 August 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  24. ↑ Bloom & Blair 2009 , p. 201, Chapter: Architecture; X. Decoration; B. Tiles
  25. ↑ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2006). Culture and Customs of Morocco. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-313-33289-0.
  26. ↑ Tabbaa, Yasser. "The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning" (PDF). Archnet. pp. 61–74. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  27. ↑ "For Educators: Geometric Design in Islamic Art: Image 15". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  28. ↑ "Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book. Ceramics". Museum with no Frontiers. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  29. ↑ "Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book. Leather". Museum with no Frontiers. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  30. ↑ King, David C. King (2006). Azerbaijan . Marshall Cavendish. p.  99. ISBN   978-0-7614-2011-8.
  31. ↑ Sharifov, Azad (1998). "Shaki Paradise in the Caucasus Foothills". Azerbaijan International. 6 (2): 28–35.
  32. ↑ Gereh-Sāzī. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  33. ↑ Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. SUNY Press. pp. 122–132. ISBN   978-0-87395-602-4.
  34. ↑ Gibb, Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen (1954). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill Archive. pp. 990–992. GGKEY:N71HHP1UY5E.
  35. ↑ Department of Islamic Art. "Calligraphy in Islamic Art" In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art (October 2001)
  36. 1 2 Bloom & Blair 2009 , Chapter: Architecture; X. Decoration
  37. ↑ Mozzati, Luca (2010). "Calligraphy: The Form of the Divine Word". Islamic Art. Prestel. pp. 52–59. ISBN   978-3-7913-4455-3.
  38. ↑ "Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy". Brooklyn Museum . Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  39. ↑ Capilla, Susana (2018). "The Visual Construction of the Umayyad Caliphate in Al-Andalus through the Great Mosque of Cordoba". Arts. 7 (3): 10. doi: 10.3390/arts7030036 . ISSN   2076-0752.
  40. ↑ Grabar, Oleg (2006). The Dome of the Rock. Harvard University Press. pp. 91–95, 119. ISBN   978-0-674-02313-0.
  41. ↑ Bloom & Blair 2009, Chapter: Jerusalem.
  42. ↑ Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter, eds. (2011). Islam: Art and Architecture. H. F. Ullman. p. 64. ISBN   9783848003808.
  43. 1 2 3 Bloom & Blair 2009 , pp. 73–74, Chapter: Ornament and pattern; I. Motifs and their transformation; D. Epigraphic
  44. 1 2 3 Brett, David; Grabar, Oleg (1993). "The Mediation of Ornament". Circa (review) (65): 63. doi:10.2307/25557837. ISSN   0263-9475. JSTOR   25557837.
  45. 1 2 Bloom & Blair 2009 , pp. 210–212, Chapter: Architecture; X. Decoration; F. Epigraphy
  46. ↑ Harthan, John P. (1961). Bookbinding (2nd ed.). HMSO for the Victoria and Albert Museum. pp. 10–12. OCLC   220550025.
  47. ↑ "A Place in Pattern: Islamic Art and its Influence in British Arts & Crafts". William Morris Society. 2020. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  48. ↑ Jones, Owen; Bedford, Francis; Waring, J. B; Westwood, J. O; Wyatt, M. Digby (1856). The grammar of ornament. London: Published by Day and Son. doi:10.5479/sil.387695.39088012147732.
  49. ↑ Gombrich, E. H. (Ernst Hans), 1909–2001. The story of art. ISBN   978-0-7148-3247-0. OCLC   1254557050.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.