List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom by education

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A list of prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the educational institutions they attended. As of July 2019, of the fifty-five prime ministers to date, twenty-eight were educated at the University of Oxford (including thirteen at Christ Church), and fourteen at the University of Cambridge (including six at Trinity College). Three attended the University of Edinburgh, three the University of Glasgow, and two Mason Science College, a predecessor institution of the University of Birmingham. John Major was (as of 2019) the last of the eight prime ministers who did not attend university after leaving secondary education.

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Head of UK Government

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, until 1801 known as the Prime Minister of Great Britain, is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister directs both the executive and the legislature, and, together with the Prime Minister's Cabinet,, is accountable to the Monarch, to Parliament, to the Prime Minister's political party and, ultimately, to the electorate for the policies and actions of the executive and the legislature.

University of Oxford university in Oxford, United Kingdom

The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest university in continuous operation after the University of Bologna. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ‘ancient universities’ are frequently jointly called ’Oxbridge’. The history and influence of the University of Oxford has made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world.

Christ Church, Oxford Constituent college of the University of Oxford in England

Christ Church is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Christ Church is a joint foundation of the college and the cathedral of the Oxford diocese, which serves as the college chapel and whose dean is ex officio the college head.

Contents

Twenty prime ministers were schooled at Eton College, of whom nine were educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, including all three who held office between 1880 and 1902 (Gladstone, Salisbury, Rosebery). Seven were educated at Harrow School and six at Westminster School. Nine prime ministers to date have been educated at non-fee-paying schools; these include all five who held office between 1964 and 1997 (Wilson, Heath, Callaghan, Thatcher, Major).

Eton College school in Windsor and Maidenhead, UK

Eton College is a public school for boys aged 13-18 in Eton, near Windsor in Berkshire, England. It was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as Kynge's College of Our Ladye of Eton besyde Windesore, as a sister institution to King's College, Cambridge, making it the 18th-oldest Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference school. Eton's history and influence have made it one of the most prestigious schools in the world.

William Ewart Gladstone British Liberal politician and prime minister of the United Kingdom

William Ewart Gladstone was a British statesman and Liberal politician. In a career lasting over 60 years, he served for 12 years as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, spread over four terms beginning in 1868 and ending in 1894. He also served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times.

Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury British politician

Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury,, styled Lord Robert Cecil before the death of his elder brother in 1865, Viscount Cranborne from June 1865 until his father died in April 1868, and then the Marquess of Salisbury, was a British statesman, serving as Prime Minister three times for a total of over thirteen years. A member of the Conservative Party, he was the last Prime Minister to head his full administration from the House of Lords.

Fifteen prime ministers trained as barristers at the Inns of Court, including twelve at Lincoln's Inn (although not all were called to the bar). Two (Wellington and Churchill) completed officer training at military academies.

Inns of Court professional associations for barristers in England and Wales

The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. There are four Inns of Court – Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple.

Lincolns Inn one of the four Inns of Court in London, England

The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. Lincoln's Inn is recognised to be one of the world's most prestigious professional bodies of judges and lawyers.

The call to the bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party and are then said to have been "called to the bar" or to have received a "call to the bar". "The bar" is now used as a collective noun for barristers, but literally referred to the wooden barrier in old courtrooms, which separated the often crowded public area at the rear from the space near the judges reserved for those having business with the Court. Barristers would sit or stand immediately behind it, facing the judge, and could use it as a table for their briefs.

Although William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath (in 1746) and James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave (in 1757) briefly attempted to form governments, neither is usually counted as Prime Minister. They are not listed below.

William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath 18th-century English politician

William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, was an English Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1707 to 1742 when he was created the first Earl of Bath by King George II. He is sometimes stated to have been Prime Minister, for the shortest term ever in 1746, although most modern sources reckon that he cannot be considered to have held the office.

James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave British Earl

James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl WaldegraveKG PC FRS, was a British statesman, who is sometimes regarded as the second shortest-serving British prime minister in history. His brief tenure as First Lord of The Treasury is lent a more lasting significance by his memoirs, which are regarded as significant in the development of Whig History.

John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute 18th-century Prime Minister of Great Britain

John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, was a British nobleman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1762 to 1763 under George III. He was arguably the last important favourite in British politics. He was the first Prime Minister from Scotland following the Acts of Union in 1707 and the first Tory to have held the post. He was also elected as the first President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland when it was founded in 1780.

University of Groningen university in the Netherlands

The University of Groningen is a public research university in the city of Groningen in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1614. Since its founding more than 200,000 students have graduated.

Leiden University university in the Netherlands

Leiden University is a public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. Founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange; leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War; as a reward to the town of Leiden for its defense against Spanish attacks, it is the oldest institution of higher education in the Netherlands, and the twelfth-oldest in Europe.

List of British prime ministers by education

Prime ministerTerm of officeSchoolUniversityDegreeProfessional training
Robert Walpole 1721–1742 Eton College Cambridge (King's Coll.)1696–98, did not graduate (LL.D. 1728) [1]
Spencer Compton
Earl of Wilmington 		1742–1743 St Paul's School Oxford (Trinity Coll.)1690–?, did not graduate (D.C.L. 1730) [2] Inns of Court: Middle Temple
Henry Pelham 1743–1754 Westminster School Cambridge (King's Coll.)1709–10 [3]
Oxford (Hart Hall)1710–?, did not graduate [4]
Thomas Pelham-Holles
Duke of Newcastle 		1754–1756
1757–1762		 Westminster School Cambridge (Clare Coll.)1710–?, did not graduate (LL.D. 1728) [5]
William Cavendish
Duke of Devonshire 		1756–1757— [6] ——
John Stuart
Earl of Bute 		1762–1763 Eton College Groningen University Civil law
1730–32 [7]
Leiden University Civil law
1732–34, graduated 1734 [8]
George Grenville 1763–1765 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church)1730–?, did not graduate [9] Inns of Court: Inner Temple
Charles Watson-Wentworth
Marquess of Rockingham 		1765–1766
1782		 Westminster School — [10] —
William Pitt the Elder
Earl of Chatham 		1766–1768 Eton College Oxford (Trinity Coll.)1727–28, did not graduate [11]
Utrecht University 1728 [12]
Augustus FitzRoy
Duke of Grafton 		1768–1770 Westminster School Cambridge (Peterhouse)1751–53, M.A. 1753 [13]
Frederick North 1770–1782 Eton College Oxford (Trinity Coll.)1749–50, M.A. 1750 [14]
Leipzig University 1751–52 [15] [16]
William Petty (FitzMaurice)
Earl of Shelburne 		1782–1783— [17] Oxford (Christ Church)1755–57, did not graduate [18] [19]
William Cavendish-Bentinck
Duke of Portland 		1783
1807–1809		 Westminster School Oxford (Christ Church)1755–57, M.A. 1757 [20]
William Pitt the Younger 1783–1801
1804–1806		— [21] Cambridge (Pembroke Coll.)1773–76, M.A. 1776 [22]
MP for Cambridge Univ. 1784–1806		 Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Henry Addington 1801–1804 Winchester College Oxford (Brasenose Coll.)1774–78, B.A. 1778 (M.A. 1780) [23] Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
William Grenville
Lord Grenville 		1806–1807 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church)1776–80, B.A. 1780 [24] Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Spencer Perceval 1809–1812 Harrow School Cambridge (Trinity Coll.)1780–82, M.A. 1782 [25] Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Robert Jenkinson
Earl of Liverpool 		1812–1827 Charterhouse School Oxford (Christ Church)1787–90, M.A. 1790 [26]
George Canning 1827 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church)1787–91, B.A. 1791 (M.A. 1794) [27]
Frederick J. Robinson
Viscount Goderich 		1827–1828 Harrow School Cambridge (St John's Coll.)1799–1802, M.A. 1802 [28]
Arthur Wellesley
Duke of Wellington 		1828–1830
1834		 Eton College ——French Royal Academy of Equitation, Angers
Charles Grey
Earl Grey 		1830–1834 Eton College Cambridge (Trinity Coll.)1781–83, did not graduate [29]
William Lamb
Viscount Melbourne 		1834
1835–1841		 Eton College Cambridge (Trinity Coll.)1796–99, M.A. 1799 [30] Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Glasgow University Resident pupil of Prof. John Millar
1799–1801 [31]
Robert Peel 1834–1835
1841–1846		 Harrow School Oxford (Christ Church) Classics and Mathematics
1805–08, B.A. 1808 (M.A. 1814) [32]
MP for Oxford Univ. 1817–29		 Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
John Russell
Earl Russell 		1846–1852
1865–1866		 Westminster School Edinburgh University Resident pupil of Prof. John Playfair
1809–12 [33]
Edward Smith-Stanley
Earl of Derby 		1852
1858–1859
1866–1868		 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church) Classics
1817–20, did not graduate [34] [35]
George Hamilton-Gordon
Earl of Aberdeen 		1852–1855 Harrow School Cambridge (St John's Coll.)1800–04, M.A. 1804 [36]
Henry John Temple
Viscount Palmerston 		1855–1858
1859–1865		 Harrow School Edinburgh University Resident pupil of Prof. Dugald Stewart
1800–03 [37] [38]
Cambridge (St John's Coll.)1803–06, M.A. 1806 [39]
MP for Cambridge Univ. 1811–31
Benjamin Disraeli
Earl of Beaconsfield 		1868
1874–1880		 Dr Cogan's School, Walthamstow —— Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
William Ewart Gladstone 1868–1874
1880–1885
1886
1892–1894		 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church) Classics and Mathematics
1828–32: B.A. 1832 (M.A. 1834) [40]
MP for Oxford Univ. 1847–65		 Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil
Marquess of Salisbury 		1885–1886
1886–1892
1895–1902		 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church) Mathematics
1847–50, B.A. 1850 (M.A. 1853),
Fellow of All Souls Coll. 1853 [41] 		Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Archibald Primrose
Earl of Rosebery 		1894–1895 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church)1866–68, did not graduate [42] [43]
Arthur Balfour 1902–1905 Eton College Cambridge (Trinity Coll.) Moral Sciences
1866–70, B.A. 1870 (M.A. 1874) [44]
Henry Campbell-Bannerman 1905–1908 High School of Glasgow Glasgow University Greek and Logic
1851–53 [45]
Cambridge (Trinity Coll.) Classics
1854–58, B.A. 1858 (M.A. 1861) [46]
H. H. Asquith 1908–1916 City of London School Oxford (Balliol Coll.) Classics
1870–74, B.A. 1874, Fellow 1874–82 [47] 		Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
David Lloyd George 1916–1922Llanystumdwy National School——Solicitor
Bonar Law 1922–1923 High School of Glasgow Glasgow University Extramural student
1879–80 [48]
Stanley Baldwin 1923–1924
1924–1929
1935–1937		 Harrow School Cambridge (Trinity Coll.) History
1885–88, B.A. 1888 (M.A. 1892) [49]
Mason College Metallurgy
Ramsay MacDonald 1924
1929–1935		Drainie Parish School Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution Extramural student
1886–87 [50] [51]
Neville Chamberlain 1937–1940 Rugby School Mason College Metallurgy
1887–89 [52]
Winston Churchill 1940–1945
1951–1955		 Harrow School —— RMC Sandhurst
Clement Attlee 1945–1951 Haileybury College Oxford (University Coll.) Modern History
1901–04, [53] B.A. 1904 (M.A.)
Lecturer at LSE 1912–14, 1919–23 [54] 		Inns of Court: Inner Temple
Anthony Eden 1955–1957 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church) Persian and Arabic
1919–22, B.A. 1922 (M.A.)
Harold Macmillan 1957–1963 Eton College Oxford (Balliol Coll.) Classics
1912–14, did not graduate
Alec Douglas-Home
Earl of Home 		1963–1964 Eton College Oxford (Christ Church) Modern History
1922–25, B.A. 1925 (M.A.)
Harold Wilson 1964–1970
1974–1976		 Royds Hall Grammar School;
Wirral Grammar School for Boys 		Oxford (Jesus Coll.) PPE (transferred from Modern History) [55]
1934–37, B.A. 1937 (M.A.)
Fellow of University Coll. 1938–45 [56]
Edward Heath 1970–1974 Chatham House Grammar School Oxford (Balliol Coll.) PPE
1935–39, B.A. 1939 (M.A.)
James Callaghan 1976–1979 Northern Secondary School, Portsmouth —— Civil Service: Inland Revenue
Margaret Thatcher 1979–1990 Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School Oxford (Somerville Coll.) Chemistry
1943–47, B.Sc. 1947 (M.A. 1950)		 Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
John Major 1990–1997 Rutlish School ——Correspondence course in banking
Tony Blair 1997–2007 Fettes College Oxford (St John's Coll.) Law
1972–75, B.A. 1975 (M.A.)		 Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn
Gordon Brown 2007–2010 Kirkcaldy High School Edinburgh University History
1967–82, M.A. 1972, Ph.D. 1982, [57]
University Rector 1972–75 [58]
David Cameron 2010–2016 Eton College Oxford (Brasenose Coll.) PPE
1985–88, B.A. 1988 (M.A.)
Theresa May 2016–2019 Holton Park Girls' Grammar School Oxford (St Hugh's Coll.) Geography
1974–77, B.A. 1977 (M.A.)
Boris Johnson 2019– Eton College Oxford (Balliol Coll.) Classics
1983–87, B.A. 1987 (M.A.)
Prime MinisterTerm of officeSchoolUniversityDegreeProfessional training

See also

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References

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  2. ↑ Foster, Joseph (1891). Alumni Oxonienses: Compton, (Hon.) Spencer. p. 315. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  3. ↑ "Pelham, Henry (PLHN709H)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  4. ↑ Foster, Joseph (1891). Alumni Oxonienses: Pelham, Henry. p. 1138. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  5. ↑ "Pelham, Thomas (PLHN709T)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  6. ↑ Thompson, Andrew, History of Government: William Cavendish Duke of Devonshire: "Initially educated at home by tutors, he, like many young aristocrats of the period, completed his education by undertaking the Grand Tour to France and Italy."
  7. ↑ "Schotse oud-student werd premier van Engeland". Groninger Gezinsbode (in Dutch). 15 November 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  8. ↑ Gillan, Caroline (2018). Lord Bute and eighteenth-century science and patronage. NUI Galway: PHD Theses (Thesis). NUI Galway. p. 44. Retrieved 29 June 2019. He left Eton College in 1730, and subsequently travelled to the Netherlands where he too pursued civil law, first attending Groningen University, before moving to Leiden University in 1732. After spending two years in Leiden, Bute left in March 1734 with a degree in civil law.
  9. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: Grenville, George. p. 562 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  10. ↑ J. M. Rigg, 'Watson-Wentworth, Charles, second Marquis of Rockingham (1730–1782)', Dictionary of National Biography , 1899, has Rockingham attending St John's College, Cambridge. However, there is no mention of him in Alumni Cantabrigienses , and the DNB is not followed in this detail by the Oxford DNB .
  11. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: Pitt, William. p. 1028 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  12. ↑ Williams, Basil (2014-01-14). The Life of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 1. p. 39. ISBN   9781136625596 . Retrieved 27 June 2019. In the following year [1728] he went to Utrecht, where he probably acquired the knowledge he afterwards displayed of Grotius and other writers on international law and diplomacy. How long he studied at Utrecht is not known; he was certainly there during the first quarter of 1728, in company with his cousin Lord Villiers and Lord Buchan and two other Erskines.
  13. ↑ "FitzRoy, Augustus Henry (FTSY751AH)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  14. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: North, Frederick. p. 1028 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  15. ↑ North, Lord (May 1903). "Lord North, the Prime Minister". The North American Review. 176 (556): 781. JSTOR   25119408. At Leipzig he made a long stay for a course of studies under the celebrated Mascow, whose lectures on the "Present State of Europe in Respect to Politics" gave him especial interest.
  16. ↑ Whiteley, Peter (1996). Lord North: The Prime Minister Who Lost America. A & C Black. pp. 11–14. ISBN   9781852851453 . Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  17. ↑ Bloy, Dr Marjorie, A Web of English History: "He appears not to have had much education: in his autobiography, he noted, "From the time I was four years old till I was fourteen, my education was neglected to the greatest degree". He was sent to an ordinary school and then was taught by a tutor until he went to Christ Church, Oxford in 1755."
  18. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: FitzMaurice, William. p. 467 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  19. ↑ "Petty, William Fitzmaurice, 1st Marquess of Lansdowne (1737–1805)". University of Toronto Libraries. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  20. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish, Marquis of Titchfield (1)"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  21. ↑ Pitt the Younger was tutored at home, until entering Cambridge a month before turning 14.
  22. ↑ "Pitt, Hon. William (PT773W)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  23. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Addington, Henry (1)"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  24. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Grenville, William (Wyndham)"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  25. ↑ "Perceval, Hon. Spencer (PRCL780S)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
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  27. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Canning, George (1)"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  28. ↑ "Robinson, Hon. Frederick John (RBN799FJ)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  29. ↑ "Grey, Charles (GRY781C)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  30. ↑ "Lamb, Hon. Henry William (LM796HW)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  31. ↑ Torrens, William McCullach (1878). Memoirs of the Right Honourable William, Second Viscount Melbourne. 1. London: Macmillan. p. 39. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  32. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: Peel, (Sir) Robert (Bart.). p. 1089 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  33. ↑ Reid, Stuart J. (1895). Lord John Russell. pp. 12–13. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  34. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Stanley, Edward Geoffrey Smith"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  35. ↑ Hawkins, Angus (2007). The Forgotten Prime Minister: The 14th Earl of Derby. Volume I: Ascent, 1799-1851. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 19–22. ISBN   978-0199204403 . Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  36. ↑ "Gordon, George Hamilton (Lord Haddo) (GRDN800GH)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  37. ↑ "Viscount Palmerston (1784 – 1865)". University of Edinburgh. 28 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  38. ↑ Thomas, Amanda J. (2010). The Lambeth Cholera Outbreak of 1848-1849. p. 54. ISBN   9780786457144 . Retrieved 28 June 2019. Palmerston had gone to Edinburgh to study under Duglad Stewart (1753–1828), professor of moral philosophy; Palmerston had also lodged with him.
  39. ↑ "Palmerston, Henry John (Temple), Viscount (PLMN803HJ)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
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  41. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  42. ↑ Foster, Joseph. Alumni Oxonienses: Primrose, Archibald Philip, Baron Dalmeny. p. 1153 – via Wikisource. [ scan   Wikisource-logo.svg ]
  43. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of"  . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  44. ↑ "Balfour, Arthur James (BLFR866AJ)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  45. ↑ "Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman". University of Glasgow: The University of Glasgow Story. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  46. ↑ "Campbell [post Campbell Bannerman], Henry (CMBL854H)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  47. ↑ Foster, Joseph. "Asquith, Herbert Henry"  . Alumni Oxonienses – via Wikisource.
  48. ↑ "Andrew Bonar Law". University of Glasgow: The University of Glasgow Story. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
  49. ↑ "Baldwin, Stanley (BLDN885S)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  50. ↑ "Notable Birkbeckians". Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved 23 June 2019. Ramsay MacDonald studied science, botany, agriculture, mathematics, and physics at Birkbeck in the latter part of the nineteenth century.
  51. ↑ "Radical Beginnings, Inspiring Traditions". Google Arts & Culture: Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved 1 July 2019. Ramsay MacDonald was a student at Birkbeck from 1886-1887, forging a lifelong passion for the arts.
  52. ↑ Self, Robert (2017). Neville Chamberlain: A Biography. ISBN   9781351915168 . Retrieved 29 June 2019. After Rugby, his father decided that Neville should attend Mason College, the forerunner of Birmingham University, undertaking a course of metallurgy, mathematics and engineering for two years as a preparation for a career in the Birmingham metal industry.
  53. ↑ "Clement Attlee Memorial Lecture 2019". University College, Oxford. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  54. ↑ Bew, John; Cox, Michael (29 March 2017). "A man for all seasons – the life and times of Clement Attlee". LSE History. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  55. ↑ Moore, Peter G. (1996). "Obituary: James Harold Wilson 1916-95". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 159 (1): 165–173. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.1996.tb00710.x. JSTOR   2983476.
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  57. ↑ Brown, Gordon (1982). "The Labour Party and political change in Scotland 1918-1929: the politics of five elections". hdl:1842/7136.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  58. ↑ "The Rector of the University". University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
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