List of largest volcanic eruptions

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The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, the largest eruption since 1912, is dwarfed by the eruptions in this list. Pinatubo91eruption plume.jpg
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, the largest eruption since 1912, is dwarfed by the eruptions in this list.

In a volcanic eruption, lava, volcanic bombs, ash, and various gases are expelled from a volcanic vent and fissure. While many eruptions only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area, Earth's largest eruptions can have a major regional or even global impact, with some affecting the climate and contributing to mass extinctions. [1] [2] Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterized as either explosive eruptions, sudden ejections of rock and ash, or effusive eruptions, relatively gentle outpourings of lava. [3] A separate list is given below for each type.

Contents

There have probably been many such eruptions during Earth's history beyond those shown in these lists. However erosion and plate tectonics have taken their toll, and many eruptions have not left enough evidence for geologists to establish their size. Even for the eruptions listed here, estimates of the volume erupted can be subject to considerable uncertainty. [4]

Explosive eruptions

In explosive eruptions, the eruption of magma is driven by the rapid release of pressure, often involving the explosion of gas previously dissolved within the material. The most famous and destructive historical eruptions are mainly of this type. An eruptive phase can consist of a single eruption, or a sequence of several eruptions spread over several days, weeks or months. Explosive eruptions usually involve thick, highly viscous, silicic or felsic magma, high in volatiles like water vapor and carbon dioxide. Pyroclastic materials are the primary product, typically in the form of tuff. Eruptions the size of that at Lake Toba 74,000 years ago, at least 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi), or the Yellowstone eruption 620,000 years ago, around 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi), occur worldwide every 50,000 to 100,000 years. [1] [n 1]

Volcano—eruption [5] Age (millions of years) [n 2] LocationVolume (km3) [n 3] NotesRef.
Guarapuava —Tamarana—Sarusas132  Paraná and Etendeka traps 8,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Santa Maria—Fria~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps7,800The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Lake Toba Caldera—Youngest Toba Tuff0.073 Sunda Arc, Indonesia2,000–13,200Largest known eruption on earth in at least the last million years, possibly responsible for a population bottleneck of the human species (see Toba catastrophe theory) [8] [9] [10]

[11] [12] [13]

Guarapuava —Ventura~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps7,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Flat Landing Brook Eruption466  Flat Landing Brook Formation 2,000–12,000One of the largest and oldest supereruptions. Existence as a single eruption is controversial. Possibly a multiple 2,000+ km3 event under a million years. [14] [15]
Sam Ignimbrite and Green Tuff29.5 Yemen6,797–6,803Volume includes 5550 km3 of distal tuffs. This estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3. [16]
Goboboseb–Messum volcanic centre—Springbok quartz latite unit132 Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil and Namibia6,340The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [17]
Wah Wah Springs Tuff 30.06 Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex5,500–5,900The largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex, and includes flows over 4,000 meters thick at the most. [18] [10]
Caxias do Sul—Grootberg~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps5,650The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
La Garita Caldera—Fish Canyon Tuff 27.8  San Juan volcanic field, Colorado5,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma. [19] [20]
Lund Tuff29.2 Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex4,400Formed the White Rock Caldera, one of the largest eruptions of the Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite flareup. [18]
Jacui—Goboboseb II~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps4,350The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Ourinhos—Khoraseb~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps3,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Jabal Kura'a Ignimbrite29.6 Yemen3,797–3,803Volume estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3. [16]
Windows Butte tuff31.4 William's Ridge, central Nevada3,500Part of the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up [21] [22]
Anita Garibaldi—Beacon~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps3,450The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Oxaya ignimbrites 19 Chile3,000Really a regional correlation of many ignimbrites originally thought to be distinct [23]
Gakkel Ridge Caldera 1.1  Gakkel Ridge 3,000It is the only known supervolcano located directly on the mid-ocean ridge.
Grey's Landing Supereruption8.72 Located in southern Idaho>2,800One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot Supereruptions; Largest Yellowstone eruption. [24]
Pacana Caldera—Atana ignimbrite4 Chile2,800Forms a resurgent caldera. [25]
Mangakino Caldera—Kidnappers ignimbrite1.01  Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,760 [26]
Iftar Alkalb—Tephra 4 W29.5 Afro-Arabian2,700 [4]
Yellowstone Caldera—Huckleberry Ridge Tuff 2.059 Yellowstone hotspot 2,450–2,500One of the largest Yellowstone eruptions on record [27] [9]
Nohi Rhyolite—Gero Ash-Flow Sheet70  Honshū, Japan2,200Nohi Rhyolite total volume over 7,000 km3 in 70 to 72 Ma, Gero Ash-Flow Sheet being the largest [28]
Whakamaru 0.254 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,000Largest in the Southern Hemisphere in the Late Quaternary [29]
Palmas BRA-21—Wereldsend29.5  Paraná and Etendeka traps 1,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. [6] [7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. [4] [4]
Kilgore tuff4.3 Near Kilgore, Idaho 1,800Last of the eruptions from the Heise volcanic field [30]
McMullen Supereruption8.99 Located in southern Idaho>1,700One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot eruptions. [24]
Sana'a Ignimbrite—Tephra 2W6329.5 Afro-Arabian1,600 [4]
Deicke and Millbrig 454 England, exposed in Northern Europe and Eastern US1,509 [n 4] One of the oldest large eruptions preserved [5] [31] [32]
Blacktail tuff6.5 Blacktail, Idaho1,500First of several eruptions from the Heise volcanic field [30]
Mangakino Caldera—Rocky Hill1  Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,495 [26]
Aso Caldera 0.087 Kyushu, Japan930–1,860Aso-4 ignimbrite [13]
Emory Caldera—Kneeling Nun tuff33  Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,310 [33]
Omine-Odai Caldera—Murou pyroclastic flow13.7 Honshū, Japan1,260A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma. [34]
Timber Mountain tuff11.6 Southwestern Nevada1,200Also includes a 900 cubic km tuff as a second member in the tuff [35]
Paintbrush tuff (Tonopah Spring Member)12.8 Southwestern Nevada1,200Related to a 1000 cubic km tuff (Tiva Canyon Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff [35]
Bachelor—Carpenter Ridge tuff28  San Juan volcanic field 1,200Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Bursum—Apache Springs Tuff28.5  Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,200Related to a 1050 cubic km tuff, the Bloodgood Canyon tuff [36]
Taupō Volcano—Oruanui eruption 0.027 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,170Most recent VEI 8 eruption [37]
Mangakino Caldera—Ongatiti–Mangatewaiiti1.21  Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,150 [26]
Huaylillas Ignimbrite15 Bolivia1,100Predates half of the uplift of the central Andes [38]
Bursum—Bloodgood Canyon Tuff 28.5  Mogollon-Datil volcanic field 1,050Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff, the Apache Springs tuff [36]
Okueyama Caldera 13.7  Kyūshū, Japan1,030A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma. [34]
Yellowstone Caldera—Lava Creek Tuff 0.639 Yellowstone hotspot 1,000Last large eruption in the Yellowstone National Park area [39] [9] [10]
Awasa Caldera 1.09  Main Ethiopian Rift 1,000 [40]
Cerro Galán 2.2  Catamarca Province, Argentina1,000Elliptical caldera is ~35 km wide [41]
Paintbrush tuff (Tiva Canyon Member)12.7 Southwestern Nevada1,000Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff (Topopah Spring Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff [35]
San Juan—Sapinero Mesa Tuff28  San Juan volcanic field 1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Uncompahgre—Dillon & Sapinero Mesa Tuffs28.1  San Juan volcanic field 1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Platoro—Chiquito Peak tuff28.2  San Juan volcanic field 1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma [20]
Mount Princeton—Wall Mountain tuff35.3  Thirtynine Mile volcanic area, Colorado1,000Helped cause the exceptional preservation at Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument [42]
Aira Caldera 0.03  Kyushu, Japan940–1,040Osumi pumice fall deposit, Ito ignimbrite, and Aira-Tanzawa ash fall deposit [13]

Effusive eruptions

Effusive eruption of lava from Krafla, Iceland Lava flow at Krafla, 1984.jpg
Effusive eruption of lava from Krafla, Iceland

Effusive eruptions involve a relatively gentle, steady outpouring of lava rather than large explosions. They can continue for years or decades, producing extensive fluid mafic lava flows. [43] For example, Kīlauea on Hawaiʻi continuously erupted from 1983 to 2018, producing 2.7 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava covering more than 100 km2 (40 sq mi). [44] Despite their ostensibly benign appearance, effusive eruptions can be as dangerous as explosive ones: one of the largest effusive eruptions in history occurred in Iceland during the 1783–1784 eruption of Laki, which produced about 15 km3 (4 cu mi) of lava and killed one fifth of Iceland's population. [43] The ensuing disruptions to the climate may also have killed millions elsewhere. [45] Still larger were the Icelandic eruptions of Katla (the Eldgjá eruption) circa 934, with 18 km3 (4 cu mi) of erupted lava, and the Þjórsárhraun eruption of Bárðarbunga circa 6700 BCE, with 25 km3 (6 cu mi) lava erupted, the latter being the largest effusive eruption in the last 10,000 years. [46] The lava fields of these eruptions measure 565 km2 (Laki), 700 km2 (Eldgjá) and 950 km2 (Þjórsárhraun).

EruptionAge (Millions of years)LocationVolume
(km3)		NotesRefs
Mahabaleshwar–Rajahmundry Traps (Upper)64.8 Deccan Traps, India9,300 [4]
Wapshilla Ridge flows~15.5 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States5,000–10,000Member comprises 8–10 flows with a total volume of ~50,000 km3 [47]
McCoy Canyon flow15.6 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States4,300 [47]
Umtanum flows~15.6 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,750Two flows with a total volume of 5,500 km3 [4]
Sand Hollow flow15.3 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,660 [4]
Pruitt Draw flow16.5 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350 [47]
Museum flow15.6 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350 [47]
Moonaree Dacite1591   Gawler Range Volcanics, Australia2,050One of the oldest large eruptions preserved [4]
Rosalia flow14.5 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,900 [4]
Joseph Creek flow16.5 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,850 [47]
Ginkgo Basalt15.3 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,600 [4]
California Creek–Airway Heights flow15.6 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,500 [47]
Stember Creek flow15.6 Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,200 [47]

Large igneous provinces

Extent of the Siberian Traps large igneous province (map in German) Extent of Siberian traps german.png
Extent of the Siberian Traps large igneous province (map in German)

Highly active periods of volcanism in what are called large igneous provinces have produced huge oceanic plateaus and flood basalts in the past. These can comprise hundreds of large eruptions, producing millions of cubic kilometers of lava in total. No large eruptions of flood basalts have occurred in human history, the most recent having occurred over 10 million years ago. They are often associated with breakup of supercontinents such as Pangea in the geologic record, [48] and may have contributed to a number of mass extinctions. Most large igneous provinces have either not been studied thoroughly enough to establish the size of their component eruptions, or are not preserved well enough to make this possible. Many of the eruptions listed above thus come from just two large igneous provinces: the Paraná and Etendeka traps and the Columbia River Basalt Group. The latter is the most recent large igneous province, and also one of the smallest. [45] A list of large igneous provinces follows to provide some indication of how many large eruptions may be missing from the lists given here.

Igneous provinceAge (Millions of years)LocationVolume (millions of km3)NotesRefs
Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi Plateau 121 Southwest Pacific Ocean59–77 [n 5] Largest igneous body on Earth, later split into three widely separated oceanic plateaus, with a fourth component perhaps now accreted onto South America. Possibly linked to the Louisville hotspot. [49] [50] [51]
Kerguelen Plateau–Broken Ridge112 South Indian Ocean, Kerguelen Islands 17 [n 5] Linked to the Kerguelen hotspot. Volume includes Broken Ridge and the Southern and Central Kerguelen Plateau (produced 120–95 Ma), but not the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (produced after 40 Ma). [52] [53]
North Atlantic Igneous Province 55.5North Atlantic Ocean6.6 [n 6] Linked to the Iceland hotspot. [5] [54]
Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up 32.5Southwest United States: mainly in Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico5.5Mostly andesite to rhyolite explosive (.5 million km3) to effusive (5 million km3) eruptions, 25–40 Ma. Includes many volcanic centers, including the San Juan volcanic field. [55]
Caribbean large igneous province 88  Caribbean–Colombian oceanic plateau 4Linked to the Galápagos hotspot. [56]
Siberian Traps 249.4 Siberia, Russia1–4A large outpouring of lava on land, believed to have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction ever. [57]
Karoo-Ferrar 183 Mainly Southern Africa and Antarctica. Also South America, India, Australia and New Zealand2.5Formed as Gondwana broke up [58]
Paraná and Etendeka traps 133  Brazil/Angola and Namibia 2.3Linked to the Tristan hotspot [59] [60]
Central Atlantic magmatic province 200  Laurasia continents2Believed to be the cause of the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. Formed as Pangaea broke up [61]
Deccan Traps 66  Deccan Plateau, India1.5A large igneous province of west-central India, believed to have been one of the causes of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Linked to the Réunion hotspot. [62] [63]
Emeishan Traps 256.5Southwestern China1Along with Siberian Traps, may have contributed to the Permian–Triassic extinction event. [64]
Coppermine River Group 1267  Mackenzie Large Igneous Province/Canadian Shield 0.65Consists of at least 150 individual flows. [65]
Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts 28.5 Ethiopia/Yemen/Afar, Arabian-Nubian Shield 0.35Associated with silicic, explosive tuffs [66] [67]
Columbia River Basalt Group 16  Pacific Northwest, United States0.18Well exposed by Missoula Floods in the Channeled Scablands. [68]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Certain felsic provinces, such as the Chon Aike province in Argentina and the Whitsunday igneous province of Australia, are not included in this list because they are composed of many separate eruptions that have not been distinguished.
  2. ↑ Dates are an average of the range of dates of volcanics.
  3. ↑ These volumes are estimated total volumes of tephra ejected. If the available sources only report a dense rock equivalent volume, the number is italicized but not converted into a tephra volume.
  4. ↑ Also the site of 972 and 943 km3 (233 and 226 cu mi) eruptions.
  5. 1 2 This is the volume of crustal thickening, so the figure includes intrusive as well as extrusive deposits.
  6. ↑ Actually several provinces, ranging in size from 1.5 to 6.6 million km3

Related Research Articles

A caldera is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface. Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2018, with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supervolcano</span> Volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8

A supervolcano is a volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8, the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcano</span> Rupture in a planets crust where material escapes

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called volcanism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhyolite</span> Igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic (silica-rich) composition

Rhyolite is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The mineral assemblage is predominantly quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase. It is the extrusive equivalent of granite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extrusive rock</span> Mode of igneous volcanic rock formation

Extrusive rock refers to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. In contrast, intrusive rock refers to rocks formed by magma which cools below the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shield volcano</span> Low-profile volcano usually formed almost entirely of fluid lava flows

A shield volcano is a type of volcano named for its low profile, resembling a shield lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid lava, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a stratovolcano. Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism of Iceland</span>

Iceland experiences frequent volcanic activity, due to its location both on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary, and being over a hotspot. Nearly thirty volcanoes are known to have erupted in the Holocene epoch; these include Eldgjá, source of the largest lava eruption in human history. Some of the various eruptions of lava, gas and ash have been both destructive of property and deadly to life over the years, as well as disruptive to local and European air travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flood basalt</span> Very large volume eruption of basalt lava

A flood basalt is the result of a giant volcanic eruption or series of eruptions that covers large stretches of land or the ocean floor with basalt lava. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a hotspot reaching the surface of the Earth via a mantle plume. Flood basalt provinces such as the Deccan Traps of India are often called traps, after the Swedish word trappa, due to the characteristic stairstep geomorphology of many associated landscapes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large igneous province</span> Huge regional accumulation of igneous rocks

A large igneous province (LIP) is an extremely large accumulation of igneous rocks, including intrusive and extrusive, arising when magma travels through the crust towards the surface. The formation of LIPs is variously attributed to mantle plumes or to processes associated with divergent plate tectonics. The formation of some of the LIPs in the past 500 million years coincide in time with mass extinctions and rapid climatic changes, which has led to numerous hypotheses about causal relationships. LIPs are fundamentally different from any other currently active volcanoes or volcanic systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowstone hotspot</span> Volcanic hotspot in the United States

The Yellowstone hotspot is a volcanic hotspot in the United States responsible for large scale volcanism in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Wyoming, formed as the North American tectonic plate moved over it. It formed the eastern Snake River Plain through a succession of caldera-forming eruptions. The resulting calderas include the Island Park Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, and the Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera. The hotspot currently lies under the Yellowstone Caldera. The hotspot's most recent caldera-forming supereruption, known as the Lava Creek Eruption, took place 640,000 years ago and created the Lava Creek Tuff, and the most recent Yellowstone Caldera. The Yellowstone hotspot is one of a few volcanic hotspots underlying the North American tectonic plate; another example is the Anahim hotspot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">La Garita Caldera</span> Large caldera in the state of Colorado, U.S.

La Garita Caldera is a large caldera and extinct supervolcano in the San Juan volcanic field in the San Juan Mountains around the town of Creede in southwestern Colorado, United States. It is west of La Garita, Colorado. The eruption that created the La Garita Caldera is among the largest known volcanic eruptions in Earth's history, as well as being one of the most powerful known supervolcanic events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fissure vent</span> Linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts

A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure, eruption fissure or simply a fissure, is a linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity. The vent is often a few metres wide and may be many kilometres long. Fissure vents can cause large flood basalts which run first in lava channels and later in lava tubes. After some time, the eruption tends to become focused at one or more spatter cones. Small fissure vents may not be easily discernible from the air, but the crater rows or the canyons built up by some of them are.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraná and Etendeka traps</span> Large igneous province in South America and Africa

The Paraná-Etendeka Large Igneous Province (PE-LIP) (or Paraná and Etendeka Plateau; or Paraná and Etendeka Province) is a large igneous province that includes both the main Paraná traps (in Paraná Basin, a South American geological basin) as well as the smaller severed portions of the flood basalts at the Etendeka traps (in northwest Namibia and southwest Angola). The original basalt flows occurred 136 to 132 million years ago. The province had a post-flow surface area of 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) and an original volume projected to be in excess of 2.3 x 106 km3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism of New Zealand</span> Volcanic activity of New Zealand

The volcanism of New Zealand has been responsible for many of the country's geographical features, especially in the North Island and the country's outlying islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism on Mars</span>

Volcanic activity, or volcanism, has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars. Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface. These features include extensive lava flows, vast lava plains, and, such as Olympus Mons, the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System. Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian to late Amazonian, indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history, and some speculate it probably still is so today. Both Mars and Earth are large, differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials. Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars, and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lava</span> Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption

Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or underwater, usually at temperatures from 800 to 1,200 °C. The volcanic rock resulting from subsequent cooling is also often called lava.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of volcanism on Earth</span>

This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period. Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.

The San Juan volcanic field is part of the San Juan Mountains in southwestern Colorado. It consists mainly of volcanic rocks that form the largest remnant of a major composite volcanic field that covered most of the southern Rocky Mountains in the Middle Tertiary geologic time. There are approximately fifteen calderas known in the San Juan Volcanic Fields; however, it is possible that there are two or even three more in the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Keres Group</span> A group of geologic formations in New Mexico

The Keres Group is a group of geologic formations exposed in and around the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico. Radiometric dating gives it an age of 13 to 6 million years, corresponding to the Miocene epoch.

References

  1. 1 2 Roy Britt, Robert (8 March 2005). "Super Volcano Will Challenge Civilization, Geologists Warn". LiveScience. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
  2. ↑ Self, Steve. "Flood basalts, mantle plumes and mass extinctions". Geological Society of London. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
  3. ↑ "Effusive & Explosive Eruptions". Geological Society of London. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Scott E. Bryan; Ingrid Ukstins Peate; David W. Peate; Stephen Self; Dougal A. Jerram; Michael R. Mawby; J.S. Marsh; Jodie A. Miller (2010). "The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth" (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 102 (3–4): 207. Bibcode:2010ESRv..102..207B. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
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