Yellowstone Caldera

Last updated

Yellowstone Caldera
Yellowstone River in Hayden Valley.jpg
The northeastern part of Yellowstone Caldera, with the Yellowstone River flowing through Hayden Valley and the caldera rim in the distance
Highest point
Elevation 9,203 [1]  ft (2,805 m)
Coordinates 44°24′N110°42′W / 44.400°N 110.700°W / 44.400; -110.700 (Yellowstone Caldera)
Geography
Location Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States
Parent range Rocky Mountains
Topo map USGS Yellowstone National Park
Geology
Age of rock 2,100,000–70,000 years [2]
Mountain type Caldera [3] and supervolcano
Volcanic field Yellowstone Plateau
Last eruption Approximately 640,000 years ago (caldera-forming); 70,000 years ago (in the caldera)
Climbing
Easiest route Hike/auto/bus

The Yellowstone Caldera, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano, is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of the state of Wyoming. The caldera measures 43 by 28 miles (70 by 45 kilometers), and postcaldera lavas spill out a significant distance beyond the caldera proper. [4]

Contents

The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff), the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff), and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 640,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff). [5]

The caldera was the largest known until the discovery of Apolaki Caldera in 2019, which is more than twice as wide. [6]

Volcanoes at Yellowstone

Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas (U.S. National Park Service). Yellowstone Major Calderas Map.jpg
Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas (U.S. National Park Service).

Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas created by large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 640,000 years ago. The calderas lie over the Yellowstone hotspot under the Yellowstone Plateau where light and hot magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, and is responsible for the eastern half of Idaho's Snake River Plain, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than the surrounding terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west-southwest over it. [7]

Over the past 16.5 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of explosive eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) from a once-mountainous region. [8] At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera. [9]

The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada–Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest-central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have been formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot. [10] [11] Progressively younger volcanic units, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada–Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such field, the Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceroses, camels, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and a hundred or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century. [12]

The loosely defined term "supervolcano" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field that produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake [13] 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 640,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. [14] The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (640,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain–Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today. [15]

Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. [16] [17] The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone 174,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well. An explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). [18] [2] Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.[ citation needed ]

The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great plume of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this plume contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.[ citation needed ]

According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km3 (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is too low to allow for another supereruption. [19] [20] [21]

In October 2017, research from Arizona State University indicated prior to Yellowstone's last supereruption, magma surged into the magma chamber in two large influxes. An analysis of crystals from Yellowstone's lava showed that prior to the last supereruption, the magma chamber underwent a rapid increase in temperature and change in composition. The analysis indicated that Yellowstone's magma reservoir can reach eruptive capacity and trigger a super-eruption within just decades, not centuries as volcanologists had originally thought. [22] [23]

IUGS geological heritage site

In respect of it being "well-known for its past explosive volcanic eruptions and lava flows as well for its world class hydrothermal system", the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included "The Yellowstone volcanic and hydrothermal system" in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history". [24]

Yellowstone hotspot origin

The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection. [25] [26] Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume). [27] Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, prompting speculation that they share a common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided. [28]

An alternate theory to the mantle plume model was proposed in 2018. It is suggested that the volcanism may be caused by upwellings from the lower mantle resulting from water-rich fragments of the Farallon Plate descending from the Cascadia subduction region, sheared off at a subducted spreading rift. [29]

Others suggest that the mantle plume could not have been a dominant force in Yellowstone volcanism due to the sinking Farallon plate, as it acts as a buffer that breaks apart the plume. Any heat from the plume that does make it to the surface is limited. [30] [31]

Hazards

Earthquakes

Incidence of earthquakes in Yellowstone National Park region (1973-2014) Yellowstone earthquakes history.svg
Incidence of earthquakes in Yellowstone National Park region (1973–2014)

Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring magnitude 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids. [33] [34]

In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 earthquakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. [35] [36] Another swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second-largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010. [34] [37] This swarm subsided to background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980. [38] In February 2018, more than 300 earthquakes occurred, with the largest being a magnitude 2.9. [39]

Volcanoes

Diagram of the Yellowstone Caldera Yellowstone Caldera.svg
Diagram of the Yellowstone Caldera

The Lava Creek eruption of the Yellowstone Caldera, which occurred 640,000 years ago, [40] ejected approximately 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the atmosphere. [2] It was Yellowstone's third and most recent caldera-forming eruption.

Geologists closely monitor the elevation of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as quickly as 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per year, as an indirect measurement of changes in magma chamber pressure. [41] [42] [43]

The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008—almost 75 millimetres (3.0 in) each year—was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. [44] From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station. [45] [46] In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly" [47] and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. [48] USGS, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable." [2] This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought". The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating:

Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption. [49]

Media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage. [50]

A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones where future eruptions are most likely to be centered. [51] Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years ago, and the third is a focus of present-day seismicity. [51]

In 2017, NASA conducted a study to determine the feasibility of preventing the volcano from erupting. The results suggested that cooling the magma chamber by 35 percent would be enough to forestall such an incident. NASA proposed introducing water at high pressure 10 kilometers underground. The circulating water would release heat at the surface, possibly in a way that could be used as a geothermal power source. If enacted, the plan would cost about $3.46 billion. Brian Wilcox of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory observes that such a project could incidentally trigger an eruption if the top of the chamber is drilled into. [52] [53]

Hydrothermal explosions

Path of the Yellowstone hotspot over the past 16 million years HotspotsSRP update2013.JPG
Path of the Yellowstone hotspot over the past 16 million years

Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity.[ citation needed ] Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond, which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.[ citation needed ]

In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m3; 580,000,000 US gal) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay. [54] [55]

Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California's Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward. [56]

In 2016, the USGS announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another eruption occurs. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

A caldera is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface. Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. Only seven caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2016. More recently, a caldera collapse occurred at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Toba</span> Crater lake located in Sumatra, Indonesia

Lake Toba is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the island of Sumatra, with a surface elevation of about 900 metres (2,953 ft), the lake stretches from 2.88°N 98.52°E to 2.35°N 99.1°E. The lake is about 100 kilometres long, 30 kilometres (19 mi) wide, and up to 505 metres (1,657 ft) deep. It is the largest lake in Indonesia and the largest volcanic lake in the world. Toba Caldera is one of twenty geoparks in Indonesia, and was recognised in July 2020 as one of the UNESCO Global Geoparks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supervolcano</span> Volcano that has erupted 1000 cubic km of lava in a single eruption

A supervolcano is a volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8, the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcano</span> Rupture in a planets crust where material escapes

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Long Valley Caldera</span> Geologic depression near Mammoth Mountain, California, United States

Long Valley Caldera is a depression in eastern California that is adjacent to Mammoth Mountain. The valley is one of the Earth's largest calderas, measuring about 20 mi (32 km) long (east-west), 11 mi (18 km) wide (north-south), and up to 3,000 ft (910 m) deep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Newberry Volcano</span> Shield volcano in Oregon, United States

Newberry Volcano is a large, active, shield-shaped stratovolcano located about 20 miles (32 km) south of Bend, Oregon, United States, 35 miles (56 km) east of the major crest of the Cascade Range, within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument. Its highest point is Paulina Peak. Newberry is the largest volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, with an area of 1,200 square miles (3,100 km2) when its lava flows are taken into account. From north to south, the volcano has a length of 75 miles (121 km), with a width of 27 miles (43 km) and a total volume of approximately 120 cubic miles (500 km3). It was named for the geologist and surgeon John Strong Newberry, who explored central Oregon for the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount</span> Active submarine volcano off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii

Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount is an active submarine volcano about 22 mi (35 km) off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii. The top of the seamount is about 3,200 ft (975 m) below sea level. This seamount is on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest active subaerial shield volcano on Earth. Kamaʻehuakanaloa is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches about 3,900 mi (6,200 km) northwest of Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Kamaʻehuakanaloa and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Kamaʻehuakanaloa is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kverkfjöll</span> Volcano in Iceland

Kverkfjöll is a potentially active central volcano, fissure swarm, and associated mountain range situated on the northern border of the glacier Vatnajökull in Iceland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phlegraean Fields</span> Supervolcano located west of Naples, Italy

The Phlegraean Fields is a large volcanic caldera situated to the west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius on the east side of Naples. The Phlegraean Fields is monitored by the Vesuvius Observatory. It was declared a regional park in 2003.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anahim Volcanic Belt</span> Chain of volcanoes and related magmatic features in British Columbia, Canada

The Anahim Volcanic Belt (AVB) is a west–east trending chain of volcanoes and related magmatic features in British Columbia, Canada. It extends from Athlone Island on the Central Coast, running eastward through the strongly uplifted and deeply dissected Coast Mountains to near the community of Nazko on the Interior Plateau. The AVB is delineated as three west-to-east segments that differ in age and structure. A wide variety of igneous rocks with differing compositions occur throughout these segments, comprising landforms such as volcanic cones, volcanic plugs, lava domes, shield volcanoes and intrusions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowstone hotspot</span> Volcanic hotspot in the United States

The Yellowstone hotspot is a volcanic hotspot in the United States responsible for large scale volcanism in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Wyoming, formed as the North American tectonic plate moved over it. It formed the eastern Snake River Plain through a succession of caldera-forming eruptions. The resulting calderas include the Island Park Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, and the Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera. The hotspot currently lies under the Yellowstone Caldera. The hotspot's most recent caldera-forming supereruption, known as the Lava Creek Eruption, took place 640,000 years ago and created the Lava Creek Tuff, and the most recent Yellowstone Caldera. The Yellowstone hotspot is one of a few volcanic hotspots underlying the North American tectonic plate; another example is the Anahim hotspot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lava Creek Tuff</span> Rock formation in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho

The Lava Creek Tuff is a voluminous sheet of ash-flow tuff located in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho, United States. It was created during the Lava Creek eruption around 630,000 years ago, which led to the formation of the Yellowstone Caldera. This eruption is considered the climactic event of Yellowstone's third volcanic cycle. The Lava Creek Tuff covers an area of more than 7,500 km2 (2,900 sq mi) centered around the caldera and has an estimated magma volume of 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">La Garita Caldera</span> Large caldera in the state of Colorado, U.S.

La Garita Caldera is a large caldera and extinct supervolcano in the San Juan volcanic field in the San Juan Mountains around the town of Creede in southwestern Colorado, United States. It is west of La Garita, Colorado. The eruption that created the La Garita Caldera is among the largest known volcanic eruptions in Earth's history, as well as being one of the most powerful known supervolcanic events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field</span> Volcanic field in Wyoming, Idaho and Montana

The Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field, also known as the Yellowstone Supervolcano or the Yellowstone Volcano, is a complex volcano, volcanic plateau and volcanic field located mostly in the western U.S. state of Wyoming but also stretches into Idaho and Montana. It is a popular site for tourists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism of Canada</span> Volcanic activity in Canada

Volcanic activity is a major part of the geology of Canada and is characterized by many types of volcanic landform, including lava flows, volcanic plateaus, lava domes, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, submarine volcanoes, calderas, diatremes, and maars, along with less common volcanic forms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds.

The Anahim hotspot is a hypothesized hotspot in the Central Interior of British Columbia, Canada. It has been proposed as the candidate source for volcanism in the Anahim Volcanic Belt, a 300 kilometres long chain of volcanoes and other magmatic features that have undergone erosion. This chain extends from the community of Bella Bella in the west to near the small city of Quesnel in the east. While most volcanoes are created by geological activity at tectonic plate boundaries, the Anahim hotspot is located hundreds of kilometres away from the nearest plate boundary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaii hotspot</span> Volcanic hotspot near the Hawaiian Islands, in the Pacific Ocean

The Hawaiʻi hotspot is a volcanic hotspot located near the namesake Hawaiian Islands, in the northern Pacific Ocean. One of the best known and intensively studied hotspots in the world, the Hawaii plume is responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a 6,200-kilometer (3,900 mi) mostly undersea volcanic mountain range. Four of these volcanoes are active, two are dormant; more than 123 are extinct, most now preserved as atolls or seamounts. The chain extends from south of the island of Hawaiʻi to the edge of the Aleutian Trench, near the eastern coast of Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silverthrone Caldera</span> Caldera in British Columbia, Canada

The Silverthrone Caldera is a potentially active caldera complex in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, located over 350 kilometres (220 mi) northwest of the city of Vancouver and about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of Mount Waddington in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains. The caldera is one of the largest of the few calderas in western Canada, measuring about 30 kilometres (19 mi) long (north-south) and 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide (east-west). Mount Silverthrone, an eroded lava dome on the caldera's northern flank that is 2,864 metres (9,396 ft) high, may be the highest volcano in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of volcanism on Earth</span>

This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period. Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.

References

  1. ↑ USGS. "Yellowstone Volcano Observatory". United States Geological Survey.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Lowenstern, Jacob B.; Christiansen, Robert L.; Smith, Robert B.; Morgan, Lisa A.; Heasler, Henry (May 10, 2005). "Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005–3024". United States Geological Survey.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ↑ "Yellowstone". Global Volcanism Program . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  4. ↑ Christiansen, Robert J.; Blank, H. Richard Jr. (1972). "Volcanic Stratigraphy of the Quaternary Rhyolite Plateau in Yellowstone National Park" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. 729-B: B2.
  5. ↑ Matthews, Naomi E.; Vazquez, Jorge A.; Calvert, Andrew T. (2015). "Age of the Lava Creek supereruption and magma chamber assembly at Yellowstone based on 40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb dating of sanidine and zircon crystals". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (8): 2508–2528. Bibcode:2015GGG....16.2508M. doi:10.1002/2015GC005881. S2CID   131340369.
  6. ↑ Malewar, Amit (October 23, 2019). "Philippines has the earth's largest known caldera". Tech Explorist. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  7. ↑ "Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming—USGS". Cascade Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. January 22, 2003. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
  8. ↑ Perkins, Michael E.; Nash, Barbara P. (March 1, 2002). "Explosive silicic volcanism of the Yellowstone hotspot: The ash fall tuff record". GSA Bulletin. 114 (3): 367–381. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114..367P. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0367:ESVOTY>2.0.CO;2.
  9. ↑ Cole, J.; Milner, D.; Spinks, K. (February 2005). "Calderas and caldera structures: a review". Earth-Science Reviews. 69 (1–2): 1–26. Bibcode:2005ESRv...69....1C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004.
  10. ↑ Johnston, Stephen T.; Wynne, P. Jane; Francis, Don; Hart, Craig J. R.; Enkin, Randolph J.; Engebretson, David C. (1996). "Yellowstone in Yukon: The Late Cretaceous Carmacks Group". Geology. 24 (11): 997, 998. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..997J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0997:YIYTLC>2.3.CO;2.
  11. ↑ "Yellowstone hotspot track". Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory . Retrieved June 10, 2010.
  12. ↑ Yellowstone Volcanic Hazards, USGS. Volcanoes.usgs.gov (March 1, 2012). Retrieved on December 31, 2013.
  13. ↑ West Thumb Lake is not to be confused with West Thumb Geyser Basin. The caldera created West Thumb Lake, and the underlying Yellowstone hotspot keeps West Thumb Geyser Basin active. See Fig. 22 Archived June 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine .
  14. ↑ Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988). "Historical unrest at large calderas of the world". doi: 10.3133/b1855 . hdl: 2027/osu.32435022084362 .{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ↑ This qualitative statement is easily verified by reviewing the Yellowstone area in Google Earth.
  16. ↑ Bindeman, Ilya N.; Fu, Bin; Kita, Noriko T.; Valley, John W. (January 2008). "Origin and Evolution of Silicic Magmatism at Yellowstone Based on Ion Microprobe Analysis of Isotopically Zoned Zircons". Journal of Petrology. 49 (1): 163–193. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.583.1851 . doi: 10.1093/petrology/egm075 .
  17. ↑ "Secrets of supervolcanoes" (PDF). University of Oregon.
  18. ↑ "Introduction to hydrothermal (steam) explosions in Yellowstone". Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Net. Archived from the original on January 6, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  19. ↑ Witze, Alexandra (2013). "Large magma reservoir gets bigger". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.14036. S2CID   130449188.
  20. ↑ "USGS: Volcano Hazards Program – Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Featured Articles Archive". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
  21. ↑ "Discovery of Ancient Super-eruptions Suggests the Yellowstone Hotspot May Be Waning (USGS Release Date: JUNE 29, 2020)" . Retrieved February 16, 2021.
  22. ↑ Aceves, Ana (October 12, 2017). "Yellowstone Supervolcano May Erupt Sooner Than Anticipated". pbs.org. NOVA Next. Retrieved March 12, 2021.
  23. ↑ Diebel, Matthew (October 16, 2017). "Scientists seek clues to what triggered past Yellowstone 'supervolcano' eruptions". USA Today. Retrieved March 12, 2021.
  24. ↑ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
  25. ↑ Foulger, Gillian (February 8, 2006). "Yellowstone". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
  26. ↑ Christiansen, Robert L.; Foulger, G. R.; Evans, John R. (2002). "Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 114 (10): 1245–1256. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114.1245C. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2.
  27. ↑ "Columbia River Basalts". www.mantleplumes.org. Retrieved April 15, 2024.
  28. ↑ Ivanov, Alexei V. (February 7, 2007). "The Columbia River Flood Basalts: Consequence of subduction-related processes". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  29. ↑ Zhou, Ying (2018), "Anomalous mantle transition zone beneath the Yellowstone hotspot track", Nature, 11 (6): 449–453, Bibcode:2018NatGe..11..449Z, doi:10.1038/s41561-018-0126-4, S2CID   134251160
  30. ↑ Leonard, Tiffany; Liu, Lijun (February 16, 2016). "The role of a mantle plume in the formation of Yellowstone volcanism". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (3): 1132–1139. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.1132L. doi: 10.1002/2015GL067131 . ISSN   0094-8276. S2CID   130205027.
  31. ↑ Kincaid, C.; Druken, K. A.; Griffiths, R. W.; Stegman, D. R. (April 7, 2013). "Bifurcation of the Yellowstone plume driven by subduction-induced mantle flow" . Nature Geoscience. 6 (5): 395–399. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..395K. doi:10.1038/ngeo1774. ISSN   1752-0894.
  32. ↑ "Yellowstone National Park Earthquake listings" . Retrieved April 20, 2013.
  33. ↑ "Yellowstone Earthquake Swarms". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory . Retrieved January 1, 2009.
  34. 1 2 "January 2010 Yellowstone Seismicity Summary" . Retrieved February 1, 2010.
  35. ↑ "Yellowstone Volcano Observatory". volcanoes.usgs.gov. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  36. ↑ "UUSS Webicorder (Seismogram) at Lake for December 31, 2008" . Retrieved January 1, 2009.
  37. ↑ Johnson, Kirk (January 31, 2010). "Hundreds of Quakes Are Rattling Yellowstone". The New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
  38. ↑ Zuckerman, Laura. "Yellowstone National Park rattled by largest earthquake in 34 years". Reuters. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
    Gedeon, Jacqueline (March 31, 2014). "4.8 magnitude earthquake hits Yellowstone National Park". KECI. Montana. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  39. ↑ Zachos, Elaina (February 21, 2018). "Earthquake Swarms Are Shaking Yellowstone's Supervolcano. Here's What That Means". National Geographic. Archived from the original on February 22, 2018. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
    Bartels, Meghan (February 20, 2018). "Yellowstone Supervolcano Earthquake Swarm Hits 200 Shakes In Less Than Two Weeks". Newsweek. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  40. ↑ "Undine Falls, Lava Creek, Yellowstone National Park". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved January 2, 2009.
  41. ↑ Timmer, John (November 8, 2007). "Yellowstone recharges". arstechnica.com. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
  42. ↑ Smith, Robert B.; Chang, Wu-Lung; Siegel, Lee (November 8, 2007). "Yellowstone rising: Volcano inflating with molten rock at record rate". University of Utah Public Relations (Press release). EurekAlert! (American Association for the Advancement of Science).
  43. ↑ Chang, W.-L.; Smith, R. B.; Wicks, C.; Farrell, J. M.; Puskas, C. M. (November 9, 2007). "Accelerated Uplift and Magmatic Intrusion of the Yellowstone Caldera, 2004 to 2006". Science. 318 (5852): 952–956. Bibcode:2007Sci...318..952C. doi:10.1126/science.1146842. PMID   17991858. S2CID   22478071.
  44. ↑ "Molten Rock Fills Yellowstone Volcano at Record Rate". www.newswise.com. Retrieved April 15, 2024.
  45. ↑ "Recent ups and downs of the Yellowstone Caldera". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory . United States Geological Survey. September 28, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  46. ↑ Smith, Robert B.; Jordan, Michael; Steinberger, Bernhard; Puskas, Christine M.; Farrell, Jamie; Waite, Gregory P.; Husen, Stephan; Chang, Wu-Lung; O'Connell, Richard (November 20, 2009). "Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hotspot and mantle plume: Seismic and GPS imaging, kinematics and mantle flow" (PDF). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 188 (1–3): 26–56. Bibcode:2009JVGR..188...26S. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.020.
  47. ↑ Current Alerts for U.S. Volcanoes. volcano.wr.usgs.gov
  48. ↑ GPS Station: WLWY – Data Products – Time Series Plots. unavco.org
  49. ↑ "Monitoring Upgrades Result in New Insight Into Yellowstone's Magma System" (Press release). Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (USGS). December 19, 2013. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
  50. ↑ Burnett, Jim (January 1, 2014). "Reactions To Yellowstone Supervolcano Study Ranged From Hysteria To Ho-Hum". National Parks Traveller. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
  51. 1 2 Lovett, Richard A. (September 20, 2012). "Yellowstone Supervolcano Discovery—Where Will It Erupt?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on June 28, 2021.
  52. ↑ Cox, David. "Nasa's ambitious plan to save Earth from a supervolcano". www.bbc.com. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  53. ↑ "No, NASA Isn't Going to Drill to Stop Yellowstone from Erupting". Discover Magazine. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  54. ↑ "Frequently asked questions about recent findings at Yellowstone Lake". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. September 11, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  55. ↑ "Tsunami linked to Yellowstone crater". USA Today . January 14, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  56. ↑ "Quake in Alaska Changed Yellowstone Geysers". University of Utah. May 27, 2004. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  57. ↑ "We're About to Find Out What's Rumbling Below The Yellowstone Supervolcano". Science Alert. November 16, 2016. Retrieved May 22, 2017.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.