Mahar

Last updated

Mahar
Mahar.jpg
"A Mahar woman", a watercolour by M. V. Dhurandhar, 1928
Total population
10 million[ citation needed ]
Regions with significant populations
Maharashtra 8,006,060
Madhyapradesh 819,416
Chhattisgarh 245,220
Karnataka 66,068
West Bengal 34,793 [note 1]
Gujarat 28,417
Odisha 21,304
Andhrapradesh (including Telangana)12,872
Goa 8,536
Rajasthan 1,980
Assam 1,822
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 224
Daman and Diu 110
Languages
Marathi, Konkani, Varhadi dialect, Ahirani, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, English
Religion
Majority:
Dharma Wheel (2).svg Buddhism
Minority:
Hinduism & Christianity

Mahar is an Indian caste found largely in the state of Maharashtra and neighbouring areas. [11] [12] Most of the Mahar community followed B. R. Ambedkar in converting to Buddhism in the middle of the 20th century. [13] [14] As of 2017 the Mahar caste was designated as a Scheduled Caste in 16 Indian states.

Contents

Majority of Mahars converted to Buddhism in response of injustice of the caste practices within Brahmanism. It is said that, their stratum lowered during the Peshwa Rule, due to their habit of meat eating. Thus, the practice of untouchability began and continued for generations. It was the primary reason for most of the Mahar community to follow Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in embracing Buddhism and re establishing it in the middle of the 20th century. [15] [14]

History

The Mahars are considered original inhabitants of Maharashtra.The community is also known as "Kathiwale" (Men with sticks), Bumiputera (Sons of the Soil), and Mirasi (Landlords). [16] From the time of early Islamic rule, villages in Maharashtra were part of the Baluta system. In that system, different castes were assigned different roles, each with its own tasks and rights. The duties assigned to the Mahar in the Baluta system included being village watchmen, trackers of thieves, messengers, wall menders, adjudicators of boundary disputes, and suppliers of coarse cloth to the village. In return for these services, the village granted them a watan, or rights to small piece of land to do their own cultivation. The watan also included a share of village produce. [17] They also worked at times as agricultural labourers. [18] [19] However, the Mahar were socio-economically above most other untouchable groups because their traditional role had been important in the village administrative system. This had necessitated that they had at least a rudimentary education, and frequently brought them into contact with upper-caste Hindus. [20] In the Baluta system, apart from many traditional duties mentioned above, the Mahar were assigned work of removing dead cattle from the village, they also started eating the meat from the cattle that had died naturally. [21] This formed the basis for the caste being treated as untouchables. [22] The Mahar community defends consumption of beef by saying the famines were the reason they started eating the beef. [23]

Islamic Era

Under Islamic rule, Mahar served as soldiers in various armies of the Deccan Sultanates, Bahmani Sultanate, and the Mughals. [18] In 14th century, Mahar Bhakti saint Chokhamela, and many of his family members such as Karmamela, Banka, Nirmala, and Soyarabai became popular for their religious poetry called abhang. [24] [25] [26] [27]

Maratha era

Mahar served in various armies over several centuries. The Maratha king Shivaji Maharaj recruited a number of them into his army in the 17th century due to their loyalty and bravery. [28] They served as guards in hill forts and as soldiers. [29] The Mahar along with the Koli and Marathas defended the fort of Purandar from Dilerkhan's Mughal army in 1665. [30]

British India

A Mahar Man winding thread from The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India (1916) The tribes and castes of the Central Provinces of India (1916) (14740799376).jpg
A Mahar Man winding thread from The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India (1916)

Under British rule, the Mahars became aware of the scope for social and political advancement. Their traditional role had been low-status but important in the village system. [20]


Military role under the British

Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar.jpg
Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar

During the colonial period, large numbers of Mahars and dhors were recruited for military duties by the East India Company and the British Raj. The Battle of Koregaon (1 January 1818) is commemorated by an obelisk known as the Koregaon pillar—which was erected at the site of the battle—and by a medal issued in 1851. The pillar featured on the Mahar Regiment crest until the Independence of India; it is inscribed with the names of 22 Mahars killed at the battle. The victory pillar serves as focal point of Mahar heroism. [31]

The Mahar began their service to the East India company around 1750. 20-25% of the British Bombay Army was Mahar. Their conduct as soldiers was praised by many British officers. Mahars were a vital component of the British Marine Battalion. In the East India Company Army they participated in various wars including Second Anglo-Maratha War, Third Anglo-Maratha War, Second Anglo-Sikh War and Second Afghan War. [28]

After the 1857 mutiny, the British decided to change their military recruitment policy One report "emphasized that we cannot practically ignore it (the caste system), so long as the natives socially maintain it". This led to the discrimination against the Mahars, other low-caste and some unreliable Brahmin castes. [28]

Mahar recruitment reached its nadir in the early 1890s (sources differ as to exact year) when British in favour of "martial races," specially north-western communities halted recruitment of Mahars. [14] [32] The Mahar community attempted to confront this block with a petition circulated among the Mahar, Chamar, and Mang former soldiers—all Marathi-speaking lower castes—but the movement was unable to organise and submit their petition. [14] The attempt at a challenge had been spearheaded by Gopal Baba Walangkar, himself a Mahar, dhor and former soldier, but he found that Mahar military pensioners were unwilling to sign because they feared that they might lose their pensions. Thus, by the beginning of World War I, there were few Mahars left in the Army. [33]

A Mahar regiment was created during World War I but only for a few years and because of British desperation for additional troops. In 1941, the Mahar Regiment proper was created. [34] [35]

Jyotirao Phule

In 1873, Jyotirao Phule, the founder of Satyashodhak Samaj —which aimed to abolish religious slavery—organised Mahars.[ citation needed ] At that time, Mahars were not allowed to enter Hindu temples and were considered unclean. Even their entry into the shrines of Hindu gods was restricted. [36] Their first conference was held in Mumbai in 1903. [37] [38]

Shahu of Kolhapur

Shahu, the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur, abolished Mahar watan in 1918 and freed the Mahars in his territory from the slavery imposed by the society of the day. He also gave them all the human rights and equality that others enjoy. [39] [40]

B. R. Ambedkar

In the 20th century, top leader Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar organized the Mahars and created radical political awakening among them and inspired them to pay attention towards education. Before his death in 1956, Ambedkar, along with millions of his Mahar followers, converted to Buddhism as a protest against the caste discrimination of Hindus. [41]

Demographics

In 1969, the Mahars constituted about 70% of the total Scheduled Caste population and also represented about 9% of population of the state of Maharashtra. [42] Mahar is numerically the largest Scheduled Caste in Maharashtra, according to the 2001 Census of India. [43] As of 2017, the Mahar community was designated as a Scheduled Caste (SC) in 16 Indian states, being: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh Assam, Chhattisgarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Telangana, West Bengal and Haryana. [11]

According to the 2011 census, the Mahar population in Maharashtra is 80,06,060, which is 60.31% among Scheduled Castes, and 7.12% in the state. [44]

Culture and Social stratification

Historically Mahar had "12 and half" endogamous subcastes, major subcastes include Ladvanshi (derived from "Lata Pradesh" current Gujarat), Somvanshi, Andhavanshi, Tilvanshi, Bawane (Bhavani Mahar),Gondvanshi, Kadvanshi and Kosare etc. These subcaste names are not totemistic. Some of the subcaste names represent the territory they controlled or occupied and other subcaste names represent the acts their founders did. The Somavanshi Mahar trace their descent (bloodline) from Mahabharata's Pandava. The Somavanshi Mahar claim to have taken part in Mahabharata war and subsequently settled in Maharashtra .Before converting to Buddhism these subcastes would not marry and eat with one another. [45]

The Mahars of the Deccan speak a non-standard version of Marathi. When a Mahar meets a man of his own caste a he says Namastu, and when he meets anyone other than a Mahar he says Johar, said to be from the Sanskrit Yoddhar ( Warrior ). The Mahars belonging to different regions can't intermarry unless there is some family connection can be traced between them. The Mahars are divided into number of exogamous groups or clans or kuls. There are enough evidences found to conclude that each of the exogamous group historically owned and worshipped Devak or Totem and it is brought into prominence at the time of marriage ceremony. Members of families with a common Devak cannot intermarry.

Clan System of Mahar
ClanTotem
BagadUmbar (Ficus glomerata)
Bhagat Cobra
Gaekwad Crab, sunflower, Kohala (Cucurbita Pivi)
Jadhav Palm (Borassus Flabellzjerz, Pankanis (Typha Angustata), Tortoise(Kasav)
Kadam Kadamba (Anthocephalus Cadumba).
MohiteUmbar (Ficus Glomerata)
More Peacock
Satpal Cobra
ShevaleNagvel (Pieper Betle)
SonkambleChampa (Mesua Ferrea).
Suryavanshi Sunflower
TalvatkeCopper
TambeUmbar (Ficus Glomerata).
ZankareMango, Umbar, Zambul.

In most of the cases Devak became obsolete and it is replaced with composite Devak called Panchpalvi composed of the leaves, of five trees. [46]
Few examples of Panchpalvi are,

After Independence Era

Today mahar community has little to no political representation in the top brass due to low population.[ citation needed ] Even Dr. B.r. Ambedkar lost 2 elections fought by him on his party ticket on the loksabha.[ citation needed ] Finally he had to go Rajya Sabha with the help of some political parties at the time.[ citation needed ]

Dalit literature

According to Eleanor Zelliot, Dalit literature originated in Marathi-speaking areas of Maharashtra. She credits Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, a Mahar himself, for inspiring many Dalit writers. Baburao Bagul (1930–2008), Shankarrao Kharat, and Bandhu Madhav were early Marathi writers from the Mahar community. [47] The Mahar writer Namdeo Dhasal (who founded Dalit Panther) was significant in the Dalit movement. [48] Other notable Mahar authors writing in Marathi include Shantabai Kamble, Urmila Pawar, Raja Dhale, Daya Pawar, and Narendra Jadhav. [49]

Religion

The Dalit Buddhist Movement was begun by B. R. Ambedkar when he converted with his followers in 1956 in Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur. Nava Jetavana Temple - Shravasti - 015 Dr Ambedkar and his Followers become Buddhists in 1956 (9241722749).jpg
The Dalit Buddhist Movement was begun by B. R. Ambedkar when he converted with his followers in 1956 in Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur.

Religion-wise population of the Mahars, as per 2011 census. [44] [50]

In the 2011 census, the majority of Mahars (62%) stated Buddhism as their religion. [44] Among the Scheduled Caste Hindus (Dalit Hindus) in Maharashtra, the proportion of Mahars is the highest at 38%. And 95% of Scheduled Caste Buddhists (Neo-Buddhists) and 70% of Scheduled Caste Sikhs (Dalit Sikhs) belong to the Mahar caste. [44] [50]

Buddhism

Buddhism amongst the mahar coomunity started to take roots due to B. R. Ambedkar. [51] When he converted to Buddhism at Nagpur in 1956, many Mahars were among those of his followers who chose to do the same. [52] As Buddhists, they gave up their traditional Hindu occupations and sought to redefine their social status.[ citation needed ] Ambedkar died about two months after this mass conversion. [53] At the same spot, after his cremation, more Mahars were converted to Buddhism. [54] Now, this community is the third most populous in Mumbai. [12]

Some Buddhist leaders among the population prefer that the term Mahar no longer be applied to these converts. [55] Buddhism appealed to the sense of equality for the Mahars; [56] an intellectual of Mahar origin said, "I have accepted Buddhist doctrine. I am Buddhist now. I am not Mahar now, not untouchable nor even Hindu. I have become a human being". [57]

In a 1996 book, authors De and Shastree claimed that it has been difficult for the Neo-buddhists to totally abandon the rituals, practices, and festivals of their old Hindu religion. Although one of the early buddhist convert, V R Ranpise had written a book in Marathi called Boudha Samskar Path in 1962 as a guide to his fellow converts, very few had read the book. [58]

Hinduism

Before their conversion to Buddhism, the important deities of Mahar were Shiva, Khandoba, Vithoba and the varkari saints, Chokhamela, and Dnyaneshwar. Family deities of Mahars are typically Shiva, Maridevi, Bhumidevi, Navanathas and Bhavani. The Nag or king cobra was particularly revered by the community. [59]

Sikhism

Some Mahars in Maharashtra practice Sikhism. According to the 2011 census, there were 11,485 Scheduled Caste (SC) Sikhs in Maharashtra, of which 8,081 were Mahars. [44] [50]

Christianity

In the late 19th century, Otto Weishaupt's attempts to evangelise in the Sangamner area of Ahmadnagar district met with resistance, but his efforts to promote Christianity did appeal to few Mahars. [60] [61] Legally, Christian Mahars are not considered as Scheduled Castes (SCs). [44]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ The Mahar population in West Bengal, specifically in Jhargram, West Medinipur and Bankura district might be erroneous entry in 2011 and its four previous decadal census by a section of Pastoral society, As their Historical population was 573, 590, N/A, 1666, 6017, 4206, 6760, 12221, 17706, 23630, 28419 and 34,793 in 1901, [1] 1911, [2] 1921, 1931, [2] 1941, [3] 1951, [2] [4] 1961, [4] 1971, [5] 1981, [6] 1991, [7] 2001 [8] and in 2011, [9] subsequently. The district-wise distribution of the Mahar community as of the 1951 census was Midnapur (1,487), Birbhum (840), Burdwan (487), Malda (302), West Dinajpur (243), Jalpaiguri (221), Calcutta (177), Bankura (141), 24 Parganas (108), Murshidabad (81), Hooghly (61), Cooch Behar (33), Howrah (19), Darjeeling (3), and Nadia (1). [10] However the actual Mahar population were came to West Bengal from various part of Maharashtra during early 20th century to work in railway workshop and colonies. Nowadays their population thinly scattered all over the state, but mostly in municipal areas. They possess Buddhism except a section of Mahar in Malda district, who are Hindu by religion. By social structure they are divided into exogamous division by their surname, such as Hogragorhe, Meshram, Madaom and Shendey. The marriage rituals are performed with the help of Buddhist priest (vikkhuk), the birth pollution is observed till six days but don't conduct naming ceremony and ten day mourning are observed after cremation. [6]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">B. R. Ambedkar</span> Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer (1891–1956)

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian jurist, economist, social reformer and political leader who headed the committee drafting the Constitution of India from the Constituent Assembly debates, served as Law and Justice minister in the first cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement after renouncing Hinduism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dalit Buddhist movement</span> Modern sociopolitical movement among Dalits

The Dalit Buddhist movement is a religious as well as a socio-political movement among Dalits in India which was started by B. R. Ambedkar. It re-interpreted Buddhism and created a new school of Buddhism called Navayana. The movement has sought to be a socially and politically engaged form of Buddhism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dalit</span> Marginalized castes in India and other South Asian countries

Dalit is a term used for untouchables and outcasts, who represented the lowest stratum of the castes in the Indian subcontinent. They are also called Harijans. Dalits were excluded from the fourfold varna of the caste hierarchy and were seen as forming a fifth varna, also known by the name of Panchama. Several scholars have drawn parallels between Dalits and the Burakumin of Japan, the Baekjeong of Korea and the peasant class of the medieval European feudal system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chokhamela</span> 14th century Hindu saint

Chokhamela was a Hindu saint in Maharashtra, India in the 14th century. He belonged to the Mahar caste,, which was considered that time one of the low castes in India. He was born at Mehuna Raja, a village in Deulgaon Raja Taluka of Buldhana district. He lived at Mangalvedha in Maharashtra. He wrote many Abhangas. One of his known Abhangas is 'Abir Gulal Udhlit Rang". Social activist Arvind Prabhakar Kayande Started Celebrating "Chokhamela Festival" in Deulgaon Raja. He was one of the first low-cast poets in India.

Jatav, also known as Jatava/Jatan/ Jatua/Jhusia /Jatia/Jatiya, is an Indian Dalit community that are considered to be a subcaste of the Chamar caste, who are classified as a Scheduled Caste under modern India's system of positive discrimination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Buddhism in India</span>

Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha. It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE and was deemed a "Buddha". However, Buddhist doctrine holds that there were other Buddhas before him. Buddhism spread outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Navayana</span> Contemporary Indian branch of Buddhism

Navayāna, otherwise known as Navayāna Buddhism, refers to the modern re-interpretation of Buddhism founded and developed by the Indian jurist, social reformer, and scholar B. R. Ambedkar; it is otherwise called Neo-Buddhism and Ambedkarite Buddhism.

Shankarrao Ramchandra Kharat was a Marathi writer from Maharashtra, India.

The Dalit Panthers is a social organisation that seeks to combat caste discrimination. It was led by a group of Mahar writers and poets, including Raja Dhale, Namdeo Dhasal, and J. V. Pawar in some time between the second and the third semester of 1972. It was founded as a response to the growing discontent among the Dalit youth during the 25th Independence Day celebrations. Inspired by the Black Panther movement in the United States, poet-writers J V Pawar and Namdeo Dhasal founded the Dalit Panthers, urging a boycott of the Independence Day revelry, terming it a 'Black Independence Day'. The movement's heyday lasted from the 1970s through the 1980s, and it was later joined by many Dalit-Buddhist activists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Namantar Andolan</span> Dalit and Navayana Buddhist movement

Namantar Andolan was a Dalit and Navayana Buddhist movement to change the name of Marathwada University, in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India, to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar University. It achieved a measure of success in 1994, when the compromise name of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University was accepted. The movement was notable for the violence against Dalits and Navayana Buddhists.

Dalit literature is a genre of Indian writing that focuses on the lives, experiences, and struggles of the Dalit community over centuries, in relation to caste-based oppression and systemic discrimination. This literary genre encompasses various Indian languages such as Marathi, Bangla, Hindi, Kannada, Punjabi, Sindhi, Odia and Tamil and includes narrative-styles like poems, short stories, and autobiographies. The movement started gaining influence during the mid-twentieth-century in independent India and has since spread across various Indian languages.

Gaekwad is a surname native to the Indian state of Maharashtra. The surname is found among the Marathas, Kolis, Mali and in Scheduled castes. It is also a common surname among Bharadis, Dhor, and Mahar communities of Maharashtra.

Sant Nirmala was a poet in 14th-century Maharashtra, India. As the younger sister of Chokhamela, she was deemed equally holy with her brother and thus is also deemed a Hindu saint. Nirmala was married to Banka, of the Mahar caste. Her writings consist largely of abhangs that describe the injustice and inequalities she suffered as a result of the caste system.

Sant Banka also known as Wanka was a poet in 14th century Maharashtra, India. He was husband to Nirmala and brother-in-law to Chokhamela. Born in Mehenpuri, Banka was a member of the Mahar caste. In most of his abhangs he praised Vitthal in happiness and peace. Infrequently, he described his lower caste birth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eleanor Zelliot</span> American writer and historian

Eleanor Zelliot was an American writer, professor of Carleton College and specialist on the India, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, women of Asia, Untouchables, and social movements.

Religion in Maharashtra is characterised by the diversity of religious beliefs and practices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahad Satyagraha</span> Satyagraha or water led by B R Ambedkar

Mahad Satyagraha or Chavdar Tale Satyagraha was a satyagraha led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 to allow untouchables to use water in a public tank in Mahad, Maharashtra, India. The day is observed as Social Empowerment day in India.

Gopal Baba Walangkar, also known as Gopal Krishna walangkar,(1840–1904) is an early example of an activist working to release the untouchable people of India from their historic socio-economic oppression and is generally considered to be the pioneer of that movement. He developed a racial theory to explain the oppression and also published the monthly journal Vital-Vidhvansak, targeted at the Brahmanical Orthodoxy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marathi Buddhists</span> Buddhists of Marathi ethnic and linguistic identity

Marathi Buddhists are Buddhists of Marathi ethnic and linguistic identity. The religious community resides in the Indian state of Maharashtra. They speak Marathi as their mother-tongue. The Marathi Buddhist community is the largest Buddhist community in India. According to the 2011 Indian census, Marathi Buddhists constitute 5.81% of the population in Maharashtra, which is 77% of the total Buddhist population in India.

Baby Kamble, commonly known as Babytai Kamble, was an Indian activist and writer. She was born into an untouchable caste, Mahar, the largest untouchable community in Maharashtra. She was a well-known Dalit activist and writer who was inspired by B. R. Ambedkar, prominent dalit leader. Kamble and her family converted to Buddhism and remained lifelong practicing Buddhists. In her community, she came to be admired as a writer and was fondly called as Tai. She is widely remembered and loved by the Dalit community for her contributions of powerful literary and activist work. She is one of the earliest women writers from the untouchable communities whose distinctive reflexive style of feminist writing setting her apart from other Dalit writers and upper caste women writers who gaze was limited and reflexivity incarcerated in caste and masculinity.

References

  1. ↑ Gait, E. A (1902). Census Of India 1901. Vol. V. A (lower Probinces Of Bengal And Their Leudatoties). Part. 2 (Imperial Tables). Bengal Secretariat Press.
  2. 1 2 3 "4. West Bengal". ESTIMATED POPULATION BY CASTES, 1951 (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI. 1954. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2023.
  3. ↑ Dutch, R. A. (1942). CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 (Bengal) (PDF). Vol. IV. Caste tables - Appendix. p. 5.
  4. 1 2 Gupta, J. Datta (1953). CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 (West Bengal & Sikkim) (PDF). Vol. XVI. Tables on Scheduled Castes. p. 54.
  5. ↑ Ghosh, Bhaskar. CENSUS OF INDIA –1971, SERIES-22 (WEST BENGAL) (PDF). PART II-C (i) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TABLES (Tables C-VII and C-VIII). Director of census operation, West Bengal. p. 147.
  6. 1 2 Singh, K. S. (1993). The Scheduled Castes. Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 839–841. ISBN   978-0-19-563254-5.
  7. ↑ Banthia, R. K. (2000). CENSUS' OF INDIA 1991, SERIES-26, WEST BENGAL PART-VIII(I) (PDF). Vol. 1. SPECIAL TABLES ON SCHEDULED CASTES. Director of Census Operations, West Bengal. p. 12.
  8. ↑ "SC-14: Scheduled caste population by religious community, West Bengal - 2001". censusindia.gov.in (xls). Retrieved 9 April 2023.
  9. ↑ "A-10: Individual scheduled caste primary census abstract (PCA) data – West Bengal". censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  10. ↑ Mitra, A. (1953). The Tribes and Castes of West Bengal, Land and Land Revenue Department - Census 1951 (PDF). p. 107.
  11. 1 2 "State wise list of Scheduled Castes updated up to 26-10-2017". MSJE, Government of India. 26 October 2017. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  12. 1 2 Fred Clothey (2007). Religion in India: A Historical Introduction. Psychology Press. p. 213. ISBN   978-0-415-94023-8.
  13. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). "The 'Solution' of Conversion". Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan Publisher. pp. 119–131. ISBN   8178241560.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Zelliot, Eleanor (1978). "Religion and Legitimation in the Mahar Movement". In Smith, Bardwell L. (ed.). Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia. Leiden: Brill. pp. 88–90. ISBN   9004056742.
  15. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). "The 'Solution' of Conversion". Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan Publisher. pp. 119–131. ISBN   8178241560.
  16. ↑ THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF INDIA. 3 December 2023.
  17. ↑ Kulkarni, A. R. (2000). "The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective". In Kosambi, Meera (ed.). Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra. London: Sangam. pp. 121–140. ISBN   978-0863118241 . Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  18. 1 2 Mendelsohn, Oliver; Vicziany, Marika (1998). The untouchables : subordination, poverty and the state in modern India. Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN   0521553628.
  19. ↑ Zelliott, Eleanor (2015). "Ambedkar's Life and his Navayana Buddhism". In Jacobsen, Knut A. (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India. Routledge. pp. 362–363. ISBN   978-0415738651 . Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  20. 1 2 Gupta, Dipankar (May 1979). "Understanding the Marathwada Riots: A Repudiation of Eclectic Marxism". Social Scientist. 7 (10): 3–22. doi:10.2307/3516774. JSTOR   3516774.
  21. ↑ Valunjkar, T. N. (1998). "Dalit Social Consciousness in Western Maharashtra in Colonial Period 1880-1910". In Pathak, Bindeshwar (ed.). Continuity and Change in Indian Society: Essays in Memory of Late Prof. Narmadeshwar Prasad. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 207–208. ISBN   978-8-17022-726-7.
  22. ↑ Rāmacandra Kshīrasāgara (1994). Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders, 1857-1956. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 33,169. ISBN   978-81-85880-43-3.
  23. ↑ Ardythe Basham (2008). Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis. Gautam Book Center. p. 12. ISBN   978-81-87733-43-0.
  24. ↑ King, Anna S.; Brockington, J. L. (2005). The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions. Orient Blackswan. pp. 5–. ISBN   978-81-250-2801-7.
  25. ↑ Swami Ghananda; Sir John Stewart-Wallace, eds. (1979). Women saints, east & west. Hollywood, Calif.: Vedanta. p. 61. ISBN   0874810361.
  26. ↑ Aktor, Mikael; Deliège, Robert, eds. (2008). From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 86. ISBN   978-8763507752.
  27. ↑ Eleanor Zelliot (2000). Meera Kosambi (ed.). Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra. Orient Blackswan. pp. 187–188. ISBN   978-81-250-1878-0.
  28. 1 2 3 White, Richard B. (1994). "The Mahar Movement's Military Component" (PDF). SAGAR: South Asia Graduate Research Journal. 1 (1): 39–60.
  29. ↑ Shinoda, Takashi, ed. (2002). The other Gujarat. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 4. ISBN   8171548741.
  30. ↑ Kantak, M. R. (1978). "The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of Shivaji's Swarajya". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 38 (1/4): 40–56. JSTOR   42931051.
  31. ↑ Kumbhojkar, Shraddha (2012). "Contesting Power, Contesting Memories - The History of the Koregaon Memorial". The Economic and Political Weekly. EPW. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  32. ↑ Kamble, N. D. (1983). Deprived castes and their struggle for equality. Ashish Publisher House. pp. 129–132.
  33. ↑ Teltumbde, Anand (2016). Dalits: Past, present and future. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN   978-1-31552-643-0.
  34. ↑ Mahars Turn Sixty. Mod.nic.in (1 October 1941). Retrieved on 2012-03-28.
  35. ↑ Basham, Ardythe (2008). Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis. Gautam Book Center. p. 12. ISBN   978-81-87733-43-0.
  36. ↑ Galanter, Marc (1966). Smith, D. E. (ed.). South Asian politics and religion (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.
  37. ↑ Aktor, Mikael; Deliège, Robert (2008). From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 103. ISBN   978-8763507752.
  38. ↑ Keer, Dhananjay (1997). Mahatma Jotirao Phooley : father of the Indian social revolution (New ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. pp. 126–127. ISBN   817154066X.
  39. ↑ Kosambi, Meera (2000). Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra. Orient Blackswan. ISBN   9788125018780.
  40. ↑ Kulkarni, A. R. (2000). "The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective". In Kosambi, Meera (ed.). Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra. London: Sangam. pp. 121–140. ISBN   978-0863118241 . Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  41. ↑ Zelliot, Eleanor Mae (1969). Dr. Ambedkar and the Mahar movement (Thesis). ProQuest   302466553.[ page needed ]
  42. ↑ Junghare, Indira Y. (1988). "Dr. Ambedkar: The Hero of the Mahars, Ex-Untouchables of India". Asian Folklore Studies. 47 (1): 93–121. doi:10.2307/1178254. JSTOR   178254.
  43. ↑ "Maharashtra: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes" (PDF). 14 November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hiwale, Sandesh (28 April 2024). "What is the Mahar population in Maharashtra?". Dhamma Bharat. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  45. ↑ "Major castes and tribes" (PDF). Maharashtra: Land and its people. Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Government of Maharashtra.
  46. ↑ Ethnographic Notes – Andhra Pradesh (PDF). Census of India. Vol. II, part V–B, (11). Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad: Office of the Director of Census Operations. 1961. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2022.
  47. ↑ Zelliot, Eleanor (2007). "Dalit Literature, Language and Identity". In Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (eds.). Language in South Asia, Part 9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 450–454. ISBN   978-0-52178-141-1.
  48. ↑ "Of art, identity, and politics". The Hindu . 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on 2 July 2003.
  49. ↑ Jadhav, Narendra (2005). Untouchables : my family's triumphant escape from India's caste system. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN   978-0520252639 . Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  50. 1 2 3 Hiwale, Sandesh (23 February 2024). "महाराष्ट्रातील अनुसूचित जातींची धर्मनिहाय लोकसंख्या". Dhamma Bharat. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  51. ↑ Stackhouse, Max L.; Pachuau, Lalsangkima, eds. (2007). News of boundless riches : interrogating, comparing, and reconstructing mission in a global era. Delhi: ISPCK. pp. 230–232. ISBN   978-8184580136.
  52. ↑ Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1950s" (PHP). Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  53. ↑ Gautam, C. "Life of Babasaheb Ambedkar". Ambedkar Memorial Trust, London. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
  54. ↑ Kantowsky, Detlef (2003). Buddhists in India today:descriptions, pictures, and documents. Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
  55. ↑ "Maya under fire from Dalit leaders in Maharashtra". Indian Express. 1 December 2007. Archived from the original on 3 January 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  56. ↑ Pandey, Gyanendra (6–12 May 2006). "The Time of the Dalit Conversion". Economic and Political Weekly. 41 (18): 1779+1781–1788. JSTOR   4418177.
  57. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). The 'solution' of conversion': Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. Orient Blackswan. p. 138. ISBN   978-8-17824-156-2.
  58. ↑ Ranjit Kumar De; Uttara Shastree (1996). Religious Converts in India: Socio-political Study of Neo-Buddhists. Mittal Publications. pp. 65–86. ISBN   978-81-7099-629-3.
  59. ↑ Ranjit Kumar De & Uttara Shastree 1996, p. 73.
  60. ↑ Shelke, Christopher (2008). God the Creator : universality of inculturality. Roma: Pontificia università gregoriana. pp. 166–167. ISBN   978-8878391284.
  61. ↑ Rege, Sharmila (2006). Writing caste, writing gender: reading Dalit women's testimonios. New Delhi: Zubaan. p. 139. ISBN   8189013017.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.