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Khandesh | |
---|---|
Region | |
![]() Panoramic view of Purna river near Muktainagar | |
![]() Blue: Khandesh in Maharashtra Light Blue: Khandesh in Madhya Pradesh (Burhanpur) | |
Country | India |
State | Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh |
Districts | 1. Jalgaon 2. Dhule 3. Nandurbar 4. Burhanpur |
Largest City | Jalgaon |
Languages | Marathi, Khandeshi |
Area | |
• Land | 28,337 km2 (10,941 sq mi) |
Elevation | 240 m (790 ft) |
Population | |
• Total | 8,686,921 [1] |
• Density | 300/km2 (800/sq mi) |
Demonym | Khandeshi |
Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
Khandesh is a historical and geographical region located in northwestern Maharashtra, India. It broadly covers the valley of the Tapi (Tapti) River, bounded by the Satpura ranges to the north, the Ajanta hills to the south, and the Western Ghats to the west and southwest. The region includes the present-day districts of Jalgaon, Dhule and Nandurbar, along with the northern parts of present-day Nashik district. [2] [3] [4] The Burhanpur district of Madhya Pradesh also formed an integral part of Khandesh and served as the capital of the Khandesh Sultanate (1382–1601). [5]
The use of the Khandeshi language is prevalent in this region, and the language itself derives its name from the name of the region. This language is sometimes considered as a dialect of Marathi due to its mutual intelligibility with it, and hence has lower numbers in the census due to people opting their language as Marathi instead.[ original research? ] This region is famous for banana agriculture and is a leading producer of it. [6]
The region of Khandesh occupied a significant place in the historical geography of India. Once a vast and important tract, it extended across portions of present-day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. During the period of the Farooqui dynasty, Burhanpur served as its capital; in subsequent centuries, the region was incorporated into the Mughal Empire as one of its prominent subahs (provinces). At its geographical and cultural core lay the fertile valley of the Tapi River, which sustained its agrarian wealth and political centrality.
Under British rule, a major administrative division known as the Khandesh District was constituted within the Bombay Presidency. In 1906, this district was bifurcated into East Khandesh (the present Jalgaon district) and West Khandesh (the present Dhule district). Later, in 1998, Nandurbar District was carved out of Dhule, thereby establishing a separate administrative identity. [2] Although historically central to Khandesh, Burhanpur was not incorporated into the British Khandesh District. Instead, it was annexed to the East Nimar district of the Central Provinces and Berar, whose headquarter was at Khandwa.
The territorial boundaries of Khandesh underwent several significant administrative reconfigurations. In 1869, the southern portion of the British Khandesh District—including the present talukas of Kalwan, Satana, Malegaon, Deola, and Nandgaon—was detached and incorporated into the newly constituted Nasik District of the Bombay Presidency. Further adjustments followed in 1950, when eleven villages from Nandgaon taluka were transferred to Aurangabad District of the former Hyderabad State (today’s Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar district in Maharashtra). [7]
After India’s independence, the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, and more decisively, the Bombay Reorganisation Act of 1960, redefined state boundaries and laid the foundation for the creation of Maharashtra. Despite being the historic nucleus of Khandesh, Burhanpur remained within the Central Provinces (later Madhya Pradesh), and in 2003 it was reconstituted as a separate Burhanpur District following its detachment from Khandwa district.
The reorganisation of 1960 also transferred 87 villages from West Khandesh to the newly formed state of Gujarat. Of these, 23 villages from Nawapur taluka and 2 from Nandurbar taluka were annexed to Songadh taluka of Surat District, now part of Tapi District (created in 2007). Likewise, 37 villages from Akkalkuwa taluka and 25 from Taloda taluka were ceded to Sagbara taluka of Bharuch District, today incorporated into the Narmada District established in 1997. [8] [9]
The Markandeya Purana and Jain literature describe Khanadesh region as Abhiradesa. The rule of the Abhiras over this region is not only evident from the epigraphs but from the oral traditions also. A tradition of Nandurbar (Khandesh) presents before us an account of an Ahir Raja Nanda, who fought the Turks. The abhira was in Mahabharata and then it was considered as a kanhadesh (Krishna) [10]
The earliest political authority over the region later known as Khandesh can be attributed to the Maurya Empire. While no direct inscriptions of the Mauryas have been discovered within the boundaries of present-day Khandesh, a strong body of indirect evidence indicates that the region fell under Mauryan control during the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
The presence of the Mauryas in western India is well established through epigraphical and archaeological remains. Notably, the Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka are found at Sopara in today’s Palghar district of Maharashtra [11] and at Girnar in Gujarat [12] . Geographically, Khandesh lies between these two locations, making it highly probable that the region was integrated into the Mauryan provincial administration.
The Mauryas governed their vast empire through a network of provinces administered by royal princes or governors. The western Deccan, including Khandesh, would have been connected to the important trade routes leading from the ports of Sopara and Bharuch towards the Deccan plateau. Khandesh, being a fertile tract along the Tapi river, was strategically positioned on this north–south and east–west communications corridor.
The absence of direct Mauryan inscriptions in Khandesh may be explained by the fact that Ashokan edicts were often placed at sites of pilgrimage, trade, or high political importance. While Sopara functioned as a key port and Girnar as a religious and administrative center, Khandesh perhaps remained more peripheral in terms of inscriptional visibility. Nonetheless, the uniform spread of Mauryan administration across western India makes it historically consistent to consider Khandesh a part of the Mauryan imperial system.
After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, political authority in the Deccan, including the region of present-day Khandesh, passed into the hands of the Satavahana dynasty. Unlike the Mauryas, the Satavahanas left behind both inscriptional and numismatic evidence that attest to their presence in western India. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, rose to prominence in the late 1st century BCE and maintained control until the 3rd century CE, exercising authority over a vast territory stretching from the Godavari basin to western Maharashtra and parts of Malwa.
The Satavahanas are particularly important for Khandesh because the region lay on a strategic axis connecting the ports of Bharuch and Sopara with the Deccan plateau. Khandesh, situated along the Tapi river, served as a fertile agricultural base and also facilitated trade routes between northern and southern India. Archaeological discoveries of Satavahana coins and pottery in northern Maharashtra further strengthen the claim of their direct rule. [13] [14]
Epigraphical references, including the Nasik cave inscriptions, show that the Satavahanas patronized Buddhist monastic establishments throughout western India. Though Khandesh itself has yielded fewer inscriptions than the coastal and central Deccan areas, it shared in the larger religious and cultural milieu fostered by Satavahana patronage. The flourishing of Buddhist trade guilds and cave complexes at nearby sites such as Ajanta, Nasik, and Junnar demonstrates the integration of Khandesh into the commercial-religious networks of the Satavahana state. [15]
Administratively, the Satavahanas were known for their practice of granting land to Brahmanas and Buddhist monasteries, thereby promoting agrarian expansion. Khandesh’s fertile plains would have been among the areas benefitting from such agrarian growth. The Satavahanas also issued large numbers of lead and copper coins, many of which are found in western Maharashtra, providing further testimony to their economic influence in the region. [16]
By the mid-3rd century CE, the Satavahanas declined, paving the way for the rise of regional powers such as the Abhiras and the Vakatakas in the Deccan. In Khandesh, Satavahana rule left behind a legacy of agrarian development, religious patronage, and integration into long-distance trade networks.
Following the decline of the Satavahanas, the region that later came to be called Khandesh appears in early medieval sources as part of Abhiradesa—the land associated with the Abhiras (often equated with the Ahir community). The Abhiras emerged in western India as a politically significant group during the third and fourth centuries CE and exercised varying degrees of autonomy across parts of the western Deccan and adjacent tracts. [17] [18]
Evidence and sources:
Nature of Abhira rule in Khandesh:
Modern scholarship distinguishes between several plausible modes of Abhira presence in Khandesh: (a) independent local sovereignty, where Abhira rulers exercised full royal prerogatives; (b) regional lordship or chieftainship, where Abhira elites exercised de facto control while acknowledging suzerainty of a larger neighbouring power; and (c) ethno-social predominance, where pastoral and agrarian Abhira communities provided the demographic and military base without necessarily forming a centralised state. The documentary record supports all three models in differing places and periods, meaning that the Abhira role in Khandesh is best read as heterogeneous rather than uniform. [21]
Administrative and social impact:
The Abhira period in Khandesh is associated with (i) the consolidation of village-level agrarian control, (ii) the integration of pastoral communities into settled roles of landholding and military service, and (iii) the incorporation of the region into long-distance networks previously organised by the Satavahanas. In place-names and later local traditions the designation Abhiradesa persists, reflecting the strength of Abhira identity in the region’s historical memory. [22]
Historiographical remarks and limits of evidence:
Direct royal inscriptions conclusively proving continuous, centralised Abhira monarchy in Khandesh remain limited. Consequently, historians rely on a combination of copper-plate notices from adjacent districts, numismatic distribution, and textual references to reconstruct Abhira influence. This method is standard practice for early medieval regional histories where local epigraphy is sparse; the resulting reconstruction is therefore evidence-led rather than speculative. [23]
In the centuries following the Abhiras, the Traikūṭaka dynasty established authority over substantial portions of western India, including parts of present-day Khandesh. The dynasty derives its name from the Trikūṭa mountain (identified by scholars with the Nasik–Nandurbar ranges), suggesting its original territorial base lay close to the Khandesh region. [24]
The Traikūṭakas positioned themselves as patrons of Vaishnavism and styled themselves as descendants of the Yadava lineage, thereby asserting legitimacy within the broader political culture of the Deccan. [27] In Khandesh, their rule manifested in:
By the late 5th and early 6th century CE, Traikūṭaka power declined in the face of rising regional states, notably the Vakataka dynasty in the east and the Kalachuris in central India. In Khandesh, Traikūṭaka authority appears to have been gradually replaced by Vakataka influence, though the continuity of local chieftains ensured that aspects of Traikūṭaka administration persisted into the early medieval period. [28]
The Vakataka dynasty succeeded the Satavahanas as the principal power in the Deccan and, at the height of their influence, extended authority into the western region that later came to be called Khandesh. Although the political heartland of the Vākāṭakas lay in Vidarbha (eastern Maharashtra), inscriptions and archaeological evidence suggest that their cultural and economic networks reached the Tapi valley and neighbouring districts. [29]
The Vākāṭakas served as a crucial link between northern India and the Deccan. In Khandesh, their impact can be discerned in:
While the dynasty’s inscriptions are not physically located in Khandesh, the proximity of Ajanta and Nasik, coupled with trade and cultural evidence, leaves little doubt that Khandesh formed part of the Vākāṭaka zone of influence.
By the late 5th century CE, the Vākāṭakas declined following internal divisions and pressure from rising regional powers. Their political vacuum in western Maharashtra, including Khandesh, was filled by the Kalachuri dynasty and residual Traikūṭaka chiefs. The collapse of Vākāṭaka central authority did not end their cultural legacy: Ajanta remained a centre of pilgrimage and artistic influence for centuries, shaping the religious landscape of Khandesh and its surroundings. [33]
In the aftermath of the decline of the Vākāṭakas and Traikūṭakas, political authority in western India and the northern Deccan passed to the Kalachuri dynasty. The early branch of this house, often referred to as the "Kalachuris of Mahishmati," exercised sovereignty from their capital at Maheshwar on the Narmada river. Their influence extended southwards into the Tapi valley and therefore into the territory later recognised as Khandesh. [34]
The Kalachuris ruled during a time of transition in peninsular India. In Khandesh, their importance lies in:
Although direct inscriptions from Khandesh itself are sparse, the geographic placement of Kalachuri charters and the circulation of their coinage strongly indicate political control or at least firm suzerainty over the region.
By the late 7th century CE, Kalachuri power waned due to the rise of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami and later the Rashtrakutas. In Khandesh, this transition meant that local chiefs who had acknowledged Kalachuri overlordship gradually shifted allegiance to these emerging Deccan powers. Nevertheless, Kalachuri administrative patterns—particularly the use of land grants and agrarian expansion—left a durable imprint on the region’s social structure. [37]
The expansion of the Chalukya dynasty from their capital at Badami in Karnataka during the 6th and 7th centuries CE brought the northern Deccan, including the region of present-day Khandesh, under their influence. Though the Chalukyas are more directly associated with Karnataka and central Maharashtra, inscriptional and political evidence suggests that their suzerainty extended into the Tapi valley as part of their contest with neighbouring dynasties. [38]
The Chalukyas of Badami did not establish an extensive local administrative apparatus in Khandesh comparable to their core regions. Instead, their control was likely exercised through:
While direct evidence from Khandesh is limited, the broader pattern of Chalukya expansion and their frequent conflicts in adjoining regions leave little doubt that the area was part of their northern frontier during the 6th–8th centuries CE.
By the mid-8th century CE, the Badami Chalukyas declined following internal weakness and pressure from rising dynasties. In the Deccan, they were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas, who not only inherited their territories but also expanded further north. For Khandesh, this marked the beginning of a more direct and sustained integration into an imperial system, as the Rashtrakutas established a stronger foothold in the Tapi valley than their Chalukya predecessors. [41]
The Rashtrakuta dynasty, who rose to imperial power in the mid-8th century CE after displacing the Chalukyas of Badami, established one of the largest and most influential empires of early medieval India. Their dominions stretched from the Narmada in the north to the Kaveri in the south, and from the Arabian Sea to parts of central India. Within this framework, Khandesh formed part of their northern Deccan territories, strategically located along the Tapi river. [42]
The Rashtrakutas integrated Khandesh into their imperial system through:
As a frontier zone connecting Malwa, Gujarat, and the northern Deccan, Khandesh played a significant role in the Rashtrakuta military strategy. The dynasty’s repeated campaigns against the Pratiharas of northern India and the Palas of Bengal (the so-called "tripartite struggle") relied on secure access through Khandesh.
By the late 10th century CE, Rashtrakuta power declined under pressure from the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. In Khandesh, as elsewhere, this transition marked the shift from Rashtrakuta governors and feudatories to the control of new regional forces. Nevertheless, the Rashtrakuta legacy of temple patronage, agrarian expansion, and integration into pan-Indian networks profoundly shaped the historical trajectory of the region. [46]
After the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the late 10th century CE, power in the Deccan passed to the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Also known as the Later Chalukyas, they ruled from their capital at Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan, Karnataka) and extended their influence across much of Maharashtra, including the region of Khandesh. [47]
The Chalukyas of Kalyani were engaged in protracted conflicts with the Cholas in the south and the Paramaras of Malwa in the north. In this geopolitical setting, Khandesh served as a northern outpost safeguarding access to the fertile Tapi basin and the road to Gujarat.
The Later Chalukyas also continued the policy of Brahmadeya (land grants to Brahmins), which facilitated agricultural expansion and settlement in the region. The spread of temples and Shaivite religious institutions in northern Maharashtra during this period is partly attributed to their patronage.
By the 12th century CE, Chalukya authority weakened under both external pressures and internal dissensions. Their feudatories, including the rising Seunas (Yadavas of Devagiri), gradually took over large parts of Maharashtra. Khandesh, lying on the frontier, passed into Yadava influence during this transition. The Western Chalukya phase thus represents a bridge between Rashtrakuta hegemony and the more consolidated Yadava rule in the 12th–13th centuries. [50]
The Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devagiri rose to prominence in the 12th century CE, establishing firm control over western Maharashtra, including the region later known as Khandesh. Their capital at Devagiri (Daulatabad) allowed them to administer both the Deccan plateau and the northern frontier regions along the Tapi valley. [51]
The Yadavas exercised strong local authority through:
Khandesh, under the Yadavas, became an important agricultural and commercial hub. Their patronage of temples, land grants to Brahmanas, and development of fortified towns contributed to the consolidation of local administration.
The Yadava dynasty fell to the forces of the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji in the late 13th century. Following this conquest, northern Maharashtra, including Khandesh, was incorporated into the Sultanate’s administrative framework, marking the end of native Hindu dynastic rule in the region. [54]
After the decline of the Yadava dynasty, northern Maharashtra, including Khandesh, came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate. The conquest was led by Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1316 CE), who sought to extend Sultanate authority into the Deccan to secure tribute and strategic routes. [55]
Khandesh’s importance to the Sultanate lay in:
By the early 14th century CE, Sultanate authority in Khandesh weakened due to distant administration and rising local chieftains. In this vacuum, Malik Ahmad Faruqi, a nobleman of Delhi origin, established autonomous control in the region, founding the Faruqi Sultanate in the early 14th century. This marked the beginning of independent Muslim rule in Khandesh, lasting until the Mughal annexation in the 17th century. [57]
The Faruqi dynasty established the Khandesh Sultanate in 1382 CE, marking the first fully independent Muslim kingdom in the region of Khandesh. The dynasty was founded by Malik Ahmad, also known as Malik Ahmad Faruqi, who had earlier served as a noble in the Delhi Sultanate. Capital cities under the dynasty included Thalner initially, later shifted to Burhanpur under Nasir Khan, consolidating administrative and commercial control. [58] [59]
Following the decline of central authority from the Delhi Sultanate in the Deccan, Malik Ahmad Faruqi established autonomy over northern Maharashtra. He expanded his control along the fertile Tapi valley and adjoining hilly tracts, establishing Khandesh as a politically cohesive region. The sultanate’s location on trade routes connecting Gujarat, Malwa, Berar, and the Deccan made it strategically significant for both commerce and military campaigns.
The Faruqi rulers maintained a standard Islamic sultanate administration:
Khandesh under the Faruqis flourished as a commercial and agrarian region:
The Faruqis patronized Islamic institutions and also maintained relations with local Hindu elites:
By the late 16th century, the Faruqi sultans faced increasing pressure from the expanding Mughal Empire. Burhanpur’s wealth and strategic location made it a prime target. In 1601 CE, after prolonged negotiations and military pressure, the last Faruqi ruler, Bahadur Shah Faruqi, ceded Khandesh to the Mughals, marking the end of the independent sultanate. Khandesh was incorporated as a Mughal province (Subah) under the imperial administration. [62] [63]
Following the annexation of the Faruqi Sultanate in 1601 CE, the Mughal Empire incorporated Khandesh as a provincial Subah. The strategic and fertile region, particularly the Tapi and Girna river basins, became an important northern frontier of the Deccan under imperial administration. [64] [65]
The Mughals introduced Persianate administrative, legal, and cultural norms:
By the late 17th century, Mughal authority in Khandesh weakened due to internal instability and the rising power of the Marathas. Repeated incursions and the inability of the Mughal governors to maintain strict control over the northern frontier set the stage for Maratha conquest in the early 18th century. [68]
With the decline of Mughal authority in the late 17th century, Khandesh became a key theatre for the expansion of the Maratha Empire. The region, strategically located along the Tapi valley and northern trade routes, was incorporated into the growing domain of the Marathas, marking the re-establishment of indigenous rule in northern Maharashtra after several centuries of Sultanate and Mughal administration. [69] [70]
The Marathas integrated Khandesh into the larger imperial framework while maintaining local governance:
Khandesh under the Marathas prospered due to:
Khandesh remained a contested frontier:
Maratha rule in Khandesh lasted until the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818 CE), after which the British East India Company annexed the region. The Maratha period in Khandesh is remembered for:
Following the defeat of the Maratha Empire in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818 CE), the British East India Company annexed Khandesh and incorporated it into the Bombay Presidency. The region was reorganized under British administrative, revenue, and judicial systems, marking the beginning of modern colonial governance. [75] [76]
British rule transformed Khandesh by:
After India's independence in 1947, Bombay province became Bombay State, and in 1960 was divided into the linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. East Khandesh became Jalgaon district, and West Khandesh became Dhule district, both in Maharashtra state. [80] The latter was further divided into Dhule and Nandurbar districts. [81] This region has a population of 8,686,921 people (including Burhanpur district of MP) as of 2011 Census.
Khandesh lies in Western India on the northwestern corner of the Maharashtra, in the valley of the Tapti River. It is bounded to the north by the Satpura Range, to the east by the Berar (Varhad) region, to the south by the Hills of Ajanta (belonging to the Marathwada region of Maharashtra), and to the west by the northernmost ranges of the Western Ghats.
The principal natural feature is the Tapti River. [81] Unlike the rest of the Deccan, whose rivers rise in the Western Ghats and flow eastward to the Bay of Bengal, the Tapti flows westward from headwaters in southern Madhya Pradesh to empty into the Arabian Sea. The Tapti receives thirteen principal tributaries in its course through Khandesh. None of these rivers is navigable, and the Tapti flows in a deep bed which historically made it difficult to use for irrigation. Most of Khandesh lies south of the Tapti and is drained by its tributaries: the Gomai, Girna, Bori, and Panjhra. The alluvial plain north of the Tapti contains some of the richest tracts in Khandesh, and the land rises towards the Satpuda hills. In the centre and east, the country is level, save for some low ranges of barren hills. To the north and west, the plain rises into rugged hills, thickly wooded, and inhabited by members of the Bhil tribe. [82]
The Greater Khandesh region's biodiversity is shaped by its diverse topography, which includes the alluvial plains of the Tapi River valley, the rugged slopes of the Satpura Range to the north, and the northern spurs of the Western Ghats (Sahyadri range) to the west. The primary biome is a tropical dry deciduous forest, which transitions to thorn scrub in arid areas and more dense, mixed forests in higher elevations.
The floristic composition of the Greater Khandesh region is marked by species adapted to the distinct monsoonal climate with a pronounced dry season. The dominant species is Teak (Tectona\ grandis), which forms extensive, economically valuable stands. Other principal tree species include Salai (Boswellia\ serrata), valued for its resin, Siris (Albizia\ lebbeck), and Babul (Acacia\ nilotica), a species known for its role in soil nitrogen fixation. [83] In the moist valleys and higher elevations, species like Sal (Shorea\ robusta) and various bamboo species become more prevalent. [84] The undergrowth is rich with grasses, shrubs, and climbers, including species like Heteropogon\ contortus, Dichanthium\ annulatum, and the medicinal Shatavari (Asparagus\ racemosus). [84]
Ethnobotanical studies conducted in the region highlight its importance as a repository of traditional medicinal knowledge. Local communities utilize a wide range of plants for therapeutic purposes. For instance, Indian mallow (Abutilon\ indicum) and Neem (Azadirachta\ indica) are commonly used for their antiseptic properties, while the fruit of Bel (Aegle\ marmelos) is used for digestive ailments. [84] Research in the Jalgaon district has documented a variety of plants used for fevers, body aches, and skin conditions. [85]
The agricultural landscape is a defining feature of the region's flora. The black cotton soils of the plains are ideal for cultivating crops such as cotton and jowar (sorghum). The fertile alluvial soils of the river valleys support water-intensive and horticultural crops. Jalgaon and Burhanpur are major centers for banana cultivation, with the district officially recognizing it as its primary produce in state. [86] Other significant crops in the region include sugarcane, bajra (pearl millet), and a variety of vegetables and pulses. [87]
The faunal diversity of the Greater Khandesh region is a product of its connected ecological corridors, which allow for the movement of species between the larger Satpura and Western Ghats ecosystems.
Mammals: The region's mammalian fauna includes both large carnivores and a variety of herbivores. The Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Jalgaon is a crucial habitat for species such as the Indian leopard (Panthera\ pardus) and the sloth bear (Melursus\ ursinus), both of which are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. [88] Other key mammals include the sambar deer (Rusa\ unicolor), chinkara (Gazella\ bennettii), nilgai (Boselaphus\ tragocamelus), and wild boar (Sus\ scrofa). [89] Smaller carnivores like the Indian jackal (Canis\ aureus), striped hyena (Hyaena\ hyaena), and jungle cat (Felis\ chaus) are also found throughout the region. [90]
Avifauna: The region, particularly the Tapi River basin, is an important hub for both resident and migratory birds. The forests and wetlands of Khandesh support a rich diversity of bird life. The critically endangered Forest Owlet (Athene\ blewitti), believed extinct for a long time, was rediscovered in the teak forests of the Satpura range near Burhanpur in 1997. [91] Other notable birds include a variety of raptors, herons, egrets, and kingfishers. The Nandur Madhyameshwar Bird Sanctuary in the northern part of Nashik district serves as a significant breeding ground for numerous species and a resting site for migratory birds. [92]
Reptiles, Amphibians, and Invertebrates: The varied habitats support a wide range of herpetofauna. Common snakes include the Common Indian Cobra (Naja\ naja), Russell's viper (Daboia\ russelii), and the non-venomous Indian rock python (Python\ molurus). [93] The presence of water bodies supports various amphibians and freshwater turtles. The invertebrate fauna is diverse, with numerous species of butterflies, moths, and beetles playing vital roles as pollinators and decomposers.
The agricultural sector in the Khandesh region is characterised by diverse cropping systems and agro-ecological variation. The historical-geographic region of Khandesh principally includes the districts of Jalgaon, Dhule, and Nandurbar in northern Maharashtra, with adjoining areas of Burhanpur (Madhya Pradesh) and the northern tehsils of Nashik district. Agriculture in Khandesh exhibits a dual structure of commercial cash-crop production and subsistence cultivation, influenced by soil type, river basins (notably the Tapi), and monsoon-driven rainfall patterns. [94]
Khandesh is dominated by heavy black soils (Vertisols), locally referred to as "black cotton soils", which are clay-rich, shrink–swell in response to moisture, and retain considerable water during the monsoon season. These soils favour cotton, sorghum and other dryland cereals but require attention to drainage, salinity and nutrient balance. [95]
Along the valleys of the Tapi and its tributaries, soils transition into more fertile alluvium (Inceptisols/Entisols), which support water-intensive and horticultural crops such as banana and sugarcane. [96]
The region experiences a semi-arid to sub-humid climate, with hot summers and a southwest monsoon that provides the majority of annual precipitation. Spatial and temporal variability of monsoon rains makes irrigation infrastructure and water-management strategies critical for stable production. [97]
Khandesh supports a mix of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibre crops and horticulture. Major patterns and district-level emphases include:
Irrigation in Khandesh is supplied through a combination of major and medium reservoirs, canal systems, and on-farm micro-irrigation. The Tapi River system and its projects—such as the Ukai (Upper Tapi), Girna and associated medium-projects—constitute the principal irrigation framework for the basin's command areas. [104]
Despite these projects, a substantial portion of cultivated area remains monsoon-dependent; consequently, government and non-government interventions emphasise watershed development, groundwater recharge, and drip/sprinkler adoption to improve water-use efficiency. [105]
Farmers in the region practice both traditional and modern methods. In Jalgaon, micro-irrigation and cluster-based horticulture programmes (including cold-storage and post-harvest handling) are increasingly common. In the cotton belt, both conventional and Bt cotton varieties are grown; cotton markets and ginning units form an important part of the commodity value chain. District agricultural extension services, National Horticulture Board schemes and NABARD-supported initiatives have been active in promoting improved seeds, integrated pest management and market linkages. [106]
Kharif crops (cotton, sorghum, millet, maize) dominate area during the monsoon season, while rabi cultivation includes wheat, gram and oilseeds where irrigation or residual moisture permits. Horticulture (banana, onion, garlic, mango) contributes a growing share of farmer incomes and marketable surplus, especially in irrigated pockets and talukas with access to market infrastructure. [107]
Khandesh is vulnerable to monsoon variability, unseasonal precipitation, hail and localised floods. High-value perennial crops such as banana are particularly sensitive to storms and heavy rains; recent local news coverage documented substantial banana crop damage across Jalgaon and other Nashik-division districts during unseasonal rains in 2025. [108]
Soil salinity, nutrient imbalance and episodic groundwater decline have been flagged in local agronomic studies, which recommend targeted soil remediation, balanced fertilisation and sustainable water management. [109]
Central and state agricultural programs—such as cluster development programmes under the National Horticulture Board, micro-irrigation subsidies, watershed development, and district-level Project for Livelihood and agriculture (PLP) plans supported by NABARD—have been used to improve productivity and reduce risk. Extension and research institutions (ICAR, state agricultural universities and district extension centres) run demonstration projects for high-value crops and tribal livelihoods in Nandurbar and neighbouring districts. [110]
Scholarly work on the Khandesh region highlights the presence of underutilised millets, pulses and other minor crops that are important for tribal nutrition and agrobiodiversity. Conservation of these crops alongside promotion of market-oriented horticulture is commonly recommended to ensure resilient rural livelihoods and genetic resource conservation. [111]
The entire area of Khandesh included two districts viz. Dhule and Jalgaon and some part of Nashik District.
Burhanpur was founded in 1399 by Naṣīr Khan, the first independent prince of the Fārūqī dynasty of Khandesh, …
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)In 1950, 11 enclave villages which formed part of Nandgaon taluka were transferred to Aurangabad district.
Villages in Nawapur, Nandurbar, Akkalkuwa and Taloda talukas transferred to Gujarat, as specified in the First Schedule.