Mandragora (genus)

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Mandragora
Mandragora officinarum 002.JPG
Mandragora officinarum
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Subfamily: Solanoideae
Tribe: Mandragoreae
Genus: Mandragora
L.
Species

See text

Mandragora is a plant genus belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae). Members of the genus are known as mandrakes. Between three and five species are placed in the genus. The one or two species found around the Mediterranean constitute the mandrake of ancient writers such as Dioscorides. Two or three further species are found eastwards into China. All are perennial herbaceous plants, with large tap roots and leaves in the form of a rosette. Individual flowers are bell-shaped, whitish through to violet, and followed by yellow or orange berries.

Contents

Like many members of the Solanaceae, species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids that make the plants poisonous. [1] Their roots in particular have a long use in traditional medicine. [2] Mandrakes are involved in many myths and superstitions. [2]

Description

Species of Mandragora are perennial herbaceous plants. They have large vertical tap roots, sometimes forked. Their stems are short or virtually absent. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant. The flowers are sometimes borne on a short stalk (scape), and are solitary, with whorls of five parts. The sepals are joined at the base, as are the petals, both in the shape of a lobed bell. The stamens are shorter than the petals, joined to the floral tube towards the base. The ovary has two chambers (locules). After fertilization, a yellow or orange fruit forms (botanically a berry). [3] [4]

Taxonomy

Mandragora officinarum with violet flowers Mandragora autumnalis1432.JPG
Mandragora officinarum with violet flowers

The genus Mandragora was first used in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in the first edition of Species Plantarum where the Mediterranean species Mandragora officinarum was described, [5] [6] which is thus the type species of the genus. [7] (Linnaeus later changed his mind and in 1759 placed M. officinarum in the genus Atropa as A. mandragora. [8] )

Jackson and Berry (1979) [7] and Ungricht et al. (1998) [9] have documented the subsequent confusion over the number of Mediterranean species of Mandragora and their scientific names. Dioscorides was among those who distinguished between "male" and "female" mandrakes, [7] a distinction used in 1764 when Garsault published the names Mandragora mas and Mandragora foemina. [9] The size and shape of the fruit and the colour and time of appearance of the flowers have been used to distinguish possible species. In the 1820s, Antonio Bertoloni used flowering time to name two species as Mandragora vernalis, the spring-flowering mandrake, and Mandragora autumnalis, the autumn-flowering mandrake. Identifying the former as Linnaeus's M. officinarum, works such as Flora Europaea listed two Mediterranean species of Mandragora: M. officinarum and M. autumnalis. [4] [7] Using statistical analysis of morphological characters, Ungricht et al. found no distinct clusters among the specimens they examined and concluded that Linnaeus's M. officinarum is a single, variable species. [9] Other sources divide M. officinarum sensu lato differently. Plants from the western Mediterranean, from Turkey westwards to the Iberian peninsula and Morocco, are placed in M. officinarum; plants from the eastern Mediterranean, from Syria to Israel, are placed in M. autumnalis. [10]

Classification and phylogeny

Traditionally, Mandragora has been considered to be closely related to Atropa and Lycium , being grouped together in the same tribe or subtribe as at least the first of these genera. [9] Molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the genus belongs in the large subfamily Solanoideae, but that within this subfamily, it is one of a number of isolated genera with no immediate relatives. [11] [12] It has thus been placed in its own tribe, Mandragoreae. [10]

Within the genus, studies have used different circumscriptions of the Mediterranean mandrakes. Two studies that separate plants found in the Levant ( Mandragora autumnalis ) from those found in the rest of the Mediterranean area ( Mandragora officinarum ) suggest that there are two clades in the genus - one based in the Mediterranean and beyond to Turkmenistan and Iran, and one in the Sino-Himalayan region. A simplified cladogram based on these studies is shown below. [10] [13] In one of the studies, M. chinghaiensis was embedded within M. caulescens. [10]

Mandragoreae

Mandragora turcomanica

Mandragora autumnalis

Mandragora officinarum

Mandragora caulescens

Mandragora chinghaiensis

The Solanaceae are primarily a New World family. Mandragora is suggested to have originated around 20 million years ago, arriving in Eurasia through the agency of birds, with the main split between the species occurring around 10 million years ago. [10]

Species

As of March 2015, major online plant databases (such as Tropicos, The Plant List, and GRIN Taxonomy for Plants) accept different numbers of species in the genus Mandragora. Three species are accepted in a 1998 review of the genus and by GRIN. [9] [14] Other sources keep M. autumnalis and M. chinghaiensis as separate species. [10]

Toxicity

Atropine is a mixture of D and L isomers, the L isomer being hyoscyamine. Atropine-D-and-L-isomers-from-DL-xtal-2004-3D-balls.png
Atropine is a mixture of D and L isomers, the L isomer being hyoscyamine.

Like many members of the Solanaceae, species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. [20] Hanuš et al. reviewed the phytochemistry of Mandragora species. More than 80 substances have been identified; their paper gives the detailed chemical structure of 37 of them. [21] The different parts of the plant contain different proportions and concentrations of alkaloids, with the roots having the highest concentrations. Alkaloids present include atropine, apoatropine, belladonnine, cuscohygrine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine (hyoscine), 3α-tigloyloxytropane, and 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropane. [7] [9] M. caulescens and M. turcomanica are also reported to contain anisodamine. [19] [22]

Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of plants described as M. autumnalis (M. offinarum sensu lato ) include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing, and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients. [23] [24] [25]

Uses

Mandragora species have a long use in traditional medicine, extracts being used for their real or supposed aphrodisiac, hypnotic, emetic, purgative, sedative, and pain-killing effects. [2] Tropane alkaloids are known to be effective as analgesics and anaesthetics, and can be used to increase circulation and dilate pupils, among other effects. [9] Hyoscine and anisodamine are used medicinally in China. [19] Continued use of M. autumnalis in folk medicine was reported in Sicily in 2014. [26] M. caulescens (as M. chinghaiensis) has been listed as a Chinese medicinal plant needing conservation. [27]

The presence of deliriant and hallucinogenic alkaloids and the sometimes vaguely humanoid shape of their roots have led to mandrakes being associated with a variety of myths and superstitious practices throughout history. [9] [2] However, the plants used in this way are not always species of Mandragora; for example, bryony ( Bryonia ) is explicitly mentioned as the source of a "mandrake" or "mandragora" in some sources. [28]

Related Research Articles

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<i>Atropa</i> Genus of plants

Atropa is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae: tall, calcicole, herbaceous perennials, bearing large leaves and glossy berries particularly dangerous to children, due to their combination of an attractive, cherry-like appearance with a high toxicity. Atropa species favour temperate climates and alkaline soils, often growing in light shade in woodland environments associated with limestone hills and mountains. Their seeds can remain viable in the soil for long periods, germinating when the soil of sites in which plants once grew is disturbed by human activity or by natural causes, e.g. the windthrow of trees. The best-known member of the genus Atropa is deadly nightshade - the poisonous plant par excellence in the minds of many. The pharmacologically active ingredients of Atropa species include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, all tropane alkaloids having anticholinergic, deliriant, antispasmodic and mydriatic properties. The genus is named for Άτροπος (Atropos) - lit. 'she who may not be turned (aside)' - one of the Three Fates and cutter of the thread of life / bringer of death - in reference to the extreme toxicity of A.belladonna and its fellow species - of which four others are currently accepted.

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Mandrake is a poisonous herbaceous plant in the genus Mandragora, often connected with magical rituals.

<i>Hyoscyamus niger</i> Species of plant

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<i>Mandragora officinarum</i> Species of plant

Mandragora officinarum is the type species of the plant genus Mandragora in the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is often known as mandrake, although this name is also used for other plants. As of 2015, sources differed significantly in the species they use for Mandragora plants native to the Mediterranean region. The main species found around the Mediterranean is called Mandragora autumnalis, the autumn mandrake. In a broader circumscription, all the plants native to the regions around the Mediterranean Sea are placed in M. officinarum, which thus includes M. autumnalis. The names autumn mandrake and Mediterranean mandrake are then used. Whatever the circumscription, Mandragora officinarum is a perennial herbaceous plant with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette, a thick upright root, often branched, and bell-shaped flowers followed by yellow or orange berries.

Mandragora may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropane alkaloid</span> Class of chemical compounds

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<i>Conium maculatum</i> Poisonous herbaceous plant in the carrot family

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<i>Scopolia carniolica</i> Species of plant

Scopolia carniolica, the European scopolia or henbane bell, is a poisonous plant belonging to the family Solanaceae. It has dark violet flowers on long hanging stems. It grows to 60 centimetres (24 in) in height. Its toxicity derives from its high levels of tropane alkaloids, particularly atropine. The concentration of atropine is highest in the roots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mandrake</span> Plant root

A mandrake is the root of a plant, historically derived either from plants of the genus Mandragora found in the Mediterranean region, or from other species, such as Bryonia alba, the English mandrake, which have similar properties. The plants from which the root is obtained are also called "mandrakes". Mediterranean mandrakes are perennial herbaceous plants with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette, a thick upright root, often branched, and bell-shaped flowers followed by yellow or orange berries. They have been placed in different species by different authors. They are highly variable perennial herbaceous plants with long thick roots and almost no stem. The leaves are borne in a basal rosette, and are variable in size and shape, with a maximum length of 45 cm (18 in). They are usually either elliptical in shape or wider towards the end (obovate), with varying degrees of hairiness.

<i>Mandragora autumnalis</i> Species of plant

Mandragora autumnalis, known as mandrake or autumn mandrake, is recognized by some sources as a separate species from Mandragora officinarum, although with different circumscriptions. Others regard it as merely part of this very variable species. Plants given the name Mandragora autumnalis consist of a rosette of leaves up to 60 cm (2 ft) across, close to the ground, with a central group of usually purplish flowers followed by yellow or orange berries. The large tap-roots as well as the leaves contain alkaloids and are toxic. They have traditional uses as herbal medicines.

Mandragora turcomanica, the Turkmenian mandrake, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the family Solanaceae, native to the Köpet Dag mountains in Turkmenistan and one location in neighbouring Iran. It differs from the mandrakes found around the Mediterranean chiefly by being larger.

Mandragora caulescens, the Himalayan mandrake, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the family Solanaceae, native to the Himalayas and mountainous regions of Myanmar and south-west China. One of the differences from the other species of Mandragora is that it has a stem, whereas they are stemless. Like all species of Mandragora, it contains tropane alkaloids, making it toxic. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine.

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<i>Atropanthe</i> Genus of flowering plants

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References

  1. ↑ Fatur, Karsten; Kreft, Samo (April 2020). "Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018)". Toxicon. 177: 52–88. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005. PMID   32217234. S2CID   213559151.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Fatur, Karsten (June 2020). ""Hexing Herbs" in Ethnobotanical Perspective: A Historical Review of the Uses of Anticholinergic Solanaceae Plants in Europe". Economic Botany. 74 (2): 140–158. doi:10.1007/s12231-020-09498-w. ISSN   0013-0001. S2CID   220844064.
  3. ↑ Zhang, Zhi-Yun; Lu, Anmin & D'Arcy, William G. "Mandragora". In Wu, Zhengyi; Raven, Peter H. & Hong, Deyuan (eds.). Flora of China (online). eFloras.org. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  4. 1 2 3 Hawkes, J.G. (1972). "Mandragora". In Tutin, T.G.; Heywood, V.H.; Burges, N.A.; Valentine, D.H.; Walters, S.M. & Webb, D.A. (eds.). Flora Europaea, Volume 3: Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–200. ISBN   978-0-521-08489-5.
  5. ↑ IPNI Plant Name Query Results for Mandragora officinarum . Retrieved 2015-03-29.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Linnaeus, C. (1753). "Mandragora". Species Plantarum, vol. 1. p. 181. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jackson, Betty P. & Berry, Michael I. (1979). "39. Mandragora - taxonomy and chemistry of the European species" (PDF). In Hawkes, J.G.; Lester, R.N. & Skelding, A.D. (eds.). The biology and taxonomy of the Solanaceae. London: Academic Press. pp. 505–512. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  8. ↑ "Mandragora officinarum". The Plant List. Retrieved 2015-04-02.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ungricht, Stefan; Knapp, Sandra & Press, John R. (1998). "A revision of the genus Mandragora (Solanaceae)". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Botany Series. 28 (1): 17–40. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tu, Tieyao; Volis, Sergei; Dillon, Michael O.; Sun, Hang & Wen, Jun (2010). "Dispersals of Hyoscyameae and Mandragoreae (Solanaceae) from the New World to Eurasia in the early Miocene and their biogeographic diversification within Eurasia". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (3): 1226–1237. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.09.007. PMID   20858548.
  11. 1 2 Olmstead, Richard G.; Bohs, Lynn; Migid, Hala Abdel; Santiago-Valentin, Eugenio; Garcia, Vicente F. & Collier, Sarah M. (2008), "A molecular phylogeny of the Solanaceae", Taxon, 57 (4): 1159–1181, doi:10.1002/tax.574010
  12. ↑ Särkinen, Tiina; Bohs, Lynn; Olmstead, Richard G. & Knapp, Sandra (2013), "A phylogenetic framework for evolutionary study of the nightshades (Solanaceae): a dated 1000-tip tree", BMC Evolutionary Biology, 13 (1): 214, doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-214 , PMC   3850475 , PMID   24283922
  13. ↑ Särkinen et al. (2013), additional file 2
  14. 1 2 3 4 "Search results for Mandragora". GRIN Taxonomy for Plants. USDA. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  15. ↑ "Mandragora turcomanica Mizg". Tropicos. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  16. ↑ Akhania, Hossein & Ghorbanib, Abdol‐Basset (2003). "Mandragora turcomanica (Solanaceae) in Iran: a new distribution record for an endangered species". Systematics and Biodiversity. 1 (2): 177–180. doi:10.1017/S1477200003001105. S2CID   85903719.
  17. ↑ "Mandragora caulescens C.B. Clarke". Tropicos. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  18. ↑ "Search results for Mandragora". The Plant List. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
  19. 1 2 3 Zhang, Zhi-Yun; Lu, Anmin & D'Arcy, William G. "Mandragora caulescens". In Wu, Zhengyi; Raven, Peter H. & Hong, Deyuan (eds.). Flora of China (online). eFloras.org. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  20. ↑ Fatur, Karsten; Kreft, Samo (April 2020). "Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018)". Toxicon. 177: 52–88. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005. PMID   32217234. S2CID   213559151.
  21. ↑ Hanuš, Lumír O.; Řezanka, Tomáš; Spížek, Jaroslav & Dembitsky, Valery M. (2005), "Substances isolated from Mandragora species", Phytochemistry, 66 (20): 2408–2417, doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.07.016, PMID   16137728
  22. ↑ Razzakov, N. A.; Aripova, S. F.; Akhmedova, E. & Karimov, A. (1998), "Alkaloids of Mandragora turcomanica", Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 34 (6): 741–742, doi:10.1007/BF02336107, S2CID   27501840
  23. ↑ Jiménez-Mejías, M.E.; Montaño-Díaz, M.; López Pardo, F.; Campos Jiménez, E.; Martín Cordero, M.C.; Ayuso González, M.J. & González de la Puente, M.A. (1990-11-24), "Intoxicación atropínica por Mandragora autumnalis: descripción de quince casos [Atropine poisoning by Mandragora autumnalis: a report of 15 cases]", Medicina Clínica, 95 (18): 689–692, PMID   2087109
  24. ↑ Piccillo, Giovita A.; Mondati, Enrico G. M. & Moro, Paola A. (2002), "Six clinical cases of Mandragora autumnalis poisoning: diagnosis and treatment", European Journal of Emergency Medicine, 9 (4): 342–347, doi:10.1097/00063110-200212000-00010, PMID   12501035
  25. ↑ Fatur, Karsten; Kreft, Samo (April 2020). "Common anticholinergic solanaceaous plants of temperate Europe - A review of intoxications from the literature (1966–2018)". Toxicon. 177: 52–88. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.005. PMID   32217234. S2CID   213559151.
  26. ↑ Tuttolomondo, Teresa; Licata, Mario; Leto, Claudio; Savo, Valentina; Bonsangue, Giuseppe; Gargano, Maria Letizia; Venturella, Giuseppe & La Bella, Salvatore (2014), "Ethnobotanical investigation on wild medicinal plants in the Monti Sicani Regional Park (Sicily, Italy)", Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 153 (3): 568–586, doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.02.032, PMID   24632020
  27. ↑ Shengji, Pei; Huyin, Huai & Lixin, Yang (2009), "Medicinal Plants and Their Conservation in China with Reference to the Chinese Himalayan Region", Asian Medicine, 5 (2): 273–290, doi: 10.1163/157342109X568810
  28. ↑ Christian, Paul (1963), The History and Practice of Magic, trans. Ross Nichols, New York: Citadel Press, OCLC   301220772 , pp. 402–403
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