Mycena purpureofusca

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Mycena purpureofusca
Mycena purpureofusca 65470.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Mycenaceae
Genus: Mycena
Species:
M. purpureofusca
Binomial name
Mycena purpureofusca
(Peck) Sacc. (1887)
Synonyms [1] [2]
  • Mycena atromarginata var. fuscopurpurea P.Karst. (1879)
  • Agaricus purpureofuscusPeck (1885)
  • Prunulus purpureofuscus(Peck) Murrill (1916)
  • Mycena sulcata Velen. (1920)
Mycena purpureofusca
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Conical cap icon.svg Cap is conical
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Question.pngEdibility is unknown

Mycena purpureofusca, commonly known as the purple edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885, the species is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers, including cones. Fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped purple caps up to 2.5 cm (1 in) set atop slender stipes up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish-purple color of its gill edges. In the field, M. purpureofusca mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes.

Contents

Taxonomy

The species was first described as Agaricus purpureofuscus by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1885. The type collection was made in Caroga, New York, from a moss-covered trunk of spruce. [3] Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Mycena in 1887, giving it the name by which it is currently known. [4] William Alphonso Murrill moved it to Prunulus in 1916, [5] but this genus has since been subsumed in Mycena. [6] In 1879, Petter Karsten described a collection made in Scandinavia as Mycena atromarginata var. fuscopurpurea, but Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus later placed this in synonymy with M. purpureofusca. Another synonym, according to Maas Geesteranus, [2] is Mycena sulcata, described by Josef Velenovský in 1920 from Czechoslovakia. [7]

Alexander H. Smith classified the species in section Calodontes, subsection Ciliatae of Mycena in his 1947 monograph on North American Mycena. [8] Rolf Singer put it in the section Rubromarginata in his 1986 The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, a group characterized by having distinct red marginate gills. [9] The specific epithet purpureofuscus combines the Latin words purpur (purple) and fusco (dark or dusky). [10] It is commonly known as the "purple edge bonnet". [11]

Description

The gill edges are colored dark greyish-purple. Mycena purpureofusca 200452.jpg
The gill edges are colored dark greyish-purple.

The cap is conical to bell-shaped, flattening in age, and reaches a diameter of 0.5–2.5 cm (0.2–1.0 in). The cap margin is usually bent inwards initially. The cap surface is initially covered with tiny white hairs, but later becomes smooth. It is slightly hygrophanous, and when moist, is slightly translucent, so that the outline of the gills underneath are apparent. Its color is dark purple in the center, fading to pale lilac at the margins; older specimens are purplish-gray. The flesh is thin and pliant, with a texture similar to cartilage. It is initially purplish-gray, becoming pale lilac to white in age. The odor and taste of the flesh are not distinctive. The narrow gills have an ascending attachment to the stipe and are narrowly adnate. They are somewhat closely spaced, with pallid to grayish face color and dark grayish purple edges that are sometimes fringed. The tubular stipe measures 3–10 cm (1.2–3.9 in) long by 1–3 mm thick. It is tough and cartilaginous, and its base it covered with white hairs. Overall, its color is that of the cap or paler, and often paler near the top. [8] The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. [12]

Spores are broadly ellipsoid in shape, amyloid, and have dimensions of either 8–10 by 6–7  μm or 10–14 by 6.7–8.5 μm depending on whether they originated from four-or two-spored basidia (spore-bearing cells), respectively. There are abundant cheilocystidia on the gill edges. They measure 30–50 by 7–12 μm, and are fusoid-ventricose, with tips that are broadly rounded. They are filled with a purplish sap and have granular contents. The cap tissue comprises a well-differentiated cuticle, a distinct hypoderm, and a filamentous tramal body. [8] Clamp connections in the hyphae are rare or absent. [13]

Similar species

Mycena californiensis 72627.jpg
Mycena californiensis has reddish-brown to brownish-orange gill edges.
Mycena rubromarginata 284929.jpg
Mycena rubromarginata has a browner coloration.

Field characteristics that help to distinguish Mycena purpureofusca from similar species include the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. M. californiensis (formerly M. elegantula) is similar, but has gill edges colored rosy to vinaceous-brown, and its cap is browner than that of M. purpureofusca. [8] It has an orange to orange-brown cap, a stipe the exudes red juice when injured, and grows in lead litter under oaks. [12] Mitchel and Smith noted that there was considerable intergradation between the two species. [14] The bioluminescent fungus M. lux-coeli is another allied species, but it has smaller spores (8.5–12 by 6.5–9 μm) and its cystidia are more lobed. [15] Another similar "bleeding" Mycena is M. haematopus , which usually grows in clusters on rotting wood. [12] In his original protologue, Peck mentioned that he considered the species closely related to M. rubromarginata , but could be distinguished by its darker color and "non-hygrophanous striate pileus." [3] Microscopically, M. rubromarginata differs from M. purpureofusca in having abundant clamp connections and narrow necks on the cheilocystidia. [2]

Habitat and distribution

Fruit bodies often grow on pine cones. Mycena purpureofusca 289525.jpg
Fruit bodies often grow on pine cones.

The fruit bodies of Mycena purpureofusca grow singly or in clusters on the decaying wood of conifers, [8] particularly spruce, pine, and Douglas-fir. [2] It is commonly found on decaying pine cones. [12] In a European study, the fungus was found growing on logs in a state of decay where the wood was mostly hard, with most of the bark left, to wood that had decayed to the point that it was mostly soft throughout. [16]

In North America, the fungus has been recorded in North Carolina, Tennessee, New York, Michigan, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, [8] Virginia, [5] and South Dakota. [17] In Canada, it has been found in Ontario. Smith noted that collections from Michigan are likely to be found on old hemlock knots lying in the soil, where it usually fruits singly; it tends to grow in clusters on logs and stumps. [8] In Europe, it has been recorded from Britain, [18] Scotland, [19] the Czech Republic, [16] Poland, [20] Germany, [21] Turkey [22] and Austria (Mykologische Datenbank (pilzdaten-austria.eu)). In the UK, the fungus is commonly found in Caledonian pine woods, [23] and it is considered an indicator species for that habitat type. [24]

Research

Mycena purpureofusca has been investigated for its potential to decolorize industrial dyes. These dyes, used in textile dyeing and printing processes, are difficult to degrade due to their highly structured organic compounds and pose a major environmental threat. The fungus mycelium produces high levels of laccase, an oxidoreductase enzyme. Laccases are widely used in biotechnology and industry due to their ability to break down various recalcitrant compounds. [25] M. purpureofusca laccase efficiently breaks down Remazol Brilliant Blue R, an industrially important dye that is frequently used as a starting material in the production of polymeric dyes.

Strobilurin A has been isolated from the fruit bodies. [26] Strobilurins have fungicidal activities and well known for their broad fungicidal spectrum, low toxicity against mammalian cells, and environmentally benign characteristics. [27]

Related Research Articles

<i>Mycena haematopus</i> Fungus species in the family Mycenaceae widespread and common in Europe and North America

Mycena haematopus, commonly known as the bleeding fairy helmet, the burgundydrop bonnet, or the bleeding Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is widespread and common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in old Japan and Venezuela. It is saprotrophic—meaning that it obtains nutrients by consuming decomposing organic matter—and the fruit bodies appear in small groups or clusters on the decaying logs, trunks, and stumps of deciduous trees, particularly beech. The fungus, first described scientifically in 1799, is classified in the section Lactipedes of the genus Mycena, along with other species that produce a milky or colored latex.

<i>Mycena galericulata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet, the toque mycena, the common mycena or the rosy-gill fairy helmet. The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772, but was not considered a Mycena until 1821. It is quite variable in color, size, and shape, which makes it somewhat difficult to reliably identify in the field. The mushrooms have caps with distinct radial grooves, particularly at the margin. The cap's color varies from grayish brown to dark brown and the shape ranges from bell-like to bluntly conical to flattened with an umbo. The stem is hollow, white, tough and thin, without a ring and often roots deeply into the wood on which it grows. The gills are white to grayish or even pinkish when mature and are connected by distinct cross-veins. The caps can reach 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter, and have a mealy odor and taste. The spore print is white and the gills are pink at maturity, which can lead to possible confusion with species of the genus Pluteus. M. galericulata mushrooms grow mostly in clusters on the well-decayed stumps of deciduous and coniferous trees from spring to autumn. The species can generally be considered inedible. It is common and widespread in the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, but it has also been reported from Africa.

<i>Mycena adscendens</i> Species of fungus

Mycena adscendens, commonly known as the frosty bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The fungus produces small white fruit bodies (mushrooms) with caps up to 7.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter that appear to be dusted with sugar-like granules. Caps are supported by thin, hollow stems up to 20 mm (0.8 in) long, which are set on a disc-like base. Its distribution includes Europe, Turkey and the Pacific coast of the United States. The fruit bodies grow on fallen twigs and other woody debris on the forest floor, including fallen hazel nuts. The variety carpophila is known from Japan. There are several small white Mycena species that are similar in appearance to M. adscendens, some of which can be reliably distinguished only by examining microscopic characteristics.

<i>Mycena cinerella</i> Species of fungus

Mycena cinerella, commonly known as the mealy bonnet, is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and the United States, where it grows in groups on fallen leaves and needles under pine and Douglas fir. The small grayish mushrooms have caps that are up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide atop stipes that are 5 cm (2.0 in) long and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) thick. Its gills are grayish-white and adnate, with a "tooth" that runs slightly down the stipe. The fungus has both two- and four-spored basidia. As its common name suggests, it smells mealy.

<i>Mycena inclinata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.

<i>Mycena leptocephala</i> Species of fungus

Mycena leptocephala, commonly known as the nitrous bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms have conical grayish caps that reach up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, and thin fragile stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. The gills are gray and distantly spaced. The spores are elliptical, typically measure 7–10 by 4–6 μm, and are white in deposit. When viewed under a light microscope, the gills have abundant spindle-shaped cystidia on the gill edges, but few on the gill faces. The mushroom is found in North America, Asia, and Europe where it grows singly or in groups on conifer needles, cones and sticks on the forest floor. It has a distinctive odor of bleach; the edibility is unknown. Similar species include Mycena alcalina, M. austera, and M. brevipes.

<i>Mycena sanguinolenta</i> Species of fungus

Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined.

<i>Mycena pura</i> Species of fungus

Mycena pura, commonly known as the lilac mycena, lilac bonnet, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First called Agaricus prunus in 1794 by Christian Hendrik Persoon, it was assigned its current name in 1871 by German Paul Kummer. Mycena pura is known to bioaccumulate the element boron.

<i>Mycena nargan</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena nargan, commonly known as the Nargan's bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, and the sole member of the section Nargan in the genus Mycena. Reported as a new species in 1995, it is known predominantly from Southern Australia. The saprobic fungus produces mushrooms that grow on well-decayed wood, often on the underside of wood lying in litter. The dark chestnut-coloured caps are covered with white, easily removed scales, and reach diameters of up to 2 cm (0.8 in) wide. The pale, slender stems are up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long and have white scales at the base. On the underside of the cap, the cream-coloured gills are widely spaced and bluntly attached to the stem. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Mycena overholtsii</i> Species of fungus

Mycena overholtsii, commonly known as the snowbank fairy helmet or fuzzy foot, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms produced by the fungus are relatively large for the genus Mycena, with convex grayish caps up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter and stems up to 15 cm (6 in) long. The gills on the underside of the cap are whitish to pale gray, and initially closely spaced before becoming well-spaced at maturity after the cap enlarges. The mushrooms are characterized by the dense covering of white "hairs" on the base of the stem. M. overholtsii is an example of a snowbank fungus, growing on well-decayed conifer logs near snowbanks, during or just after snowmelt. Formerly known only from high-elevation areas of western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain and Cascade regions, it was reported for the first time in Japan in 2010. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. M. overholtsii can be distinguished from other comparable species by differences in location, or spore size.

<i>Mycena californiensis</i> Species of fungus

Mycena californiensis is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and abundant species in the coastal oak woodlands of California, where it grows saprobically, feeding on the fallen leaves and acorns of various oak species. First described in 1860 by Berkeley and Curtis, the species was collected four years earlier during an exploring and surveying expedition. It was subsequently considered a doubtful species by later Mycena researchers, until a 1999 publication validated the taxon. Mycena elegantula is considered a synonym.

<i>Mycena mustea</i> Species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena mustea is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First described as a new species in 2007, the fungus is known only from Kanagawa, Japan, where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests. The mushroom's dull violet to grayish-violet cap, initially covered with a fine whitish powder, becomes smooth as it matures, and eventually reaches a diameter of up to 10 mm (0.39 in). The stem is slender, up to 90 mm (3.5 in) long, and is covered with stiff white hairs at the base. Underneath the cap are distantly spaced pale brownish gills that are narrowly attached to the stem. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the weakly amyloid spores, the club-shaped cheilocystidia featuring one or more short knob-like protuberances, the absence of pleurocystidia, the diverticulate cap cuticle hyphae, and the absence of clamp connections.

<i>Mycena maculata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena maculata, commonly known as the reddish-spotted Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have conic to bell-shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish-gray when young, reaching diameters of up to 4 cm. They are typically wrinkled or somewhat grooved, and have reddish-brown spots in age, or after being cut or bruised. The whitish to pale gray gills also become spotted reddish-brown as they mature. The stem, up to 8 cm (3 in) long and covered with whitish hairs at its base, can also develop reddish stains. The mycelium of M. maculata has bioluminescent properties. The saprobic fungus is found in Europe and North America, where it grows in groups or clusters on the rotting wood of both hardwoods and conifers. The edibility of the fungus is unknown. Although the species is known for, and named after its propensity to stain reddish, occasionally these stains do not appear, making it virtually indistinguishable from M. galericulata.

<i>Mycena aurantiomarginata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae common in Europe and North America

Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.

Mycena semivestipes is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in eastern North America.

<i>Mycena atkinsoniana</i> Species of fungus

Mycena atkinsoniana is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is one of the so-called "bleeding mycenas" that will ooze yellow to orange juice when injured. Other distinguishing features include the upper stem surface that is decorated with tiny purplish-brown fibers, and the gills, which are pale yellow with maroon edges. The reddish-brown caps are smooth with a grooved margin, and up to 3 cm (1.2 in) wide. Mycena atkinsoniana is known from the United States and Canada, where it grows scattered or in groups on leaf litter in forests during the summer and autumn. It was originally described from collections associated with beech, but it is also frequently found under eastern North American oaks.

<i>Mycena chlorophos</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena chlorophos is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described in 1860, the fungus is found in subtropical Asia, including India, Japan, Taiwan, Polynesia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, in Australia, and Brazil. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) have pale brownish-grey sticky caps up to 30 mm (1.2 in) in diameter atop stems 6–30 mm (0.2–1.2 in) long and up to a millimeter thick. The mushrooms are bioluminescent and emit a pale green light. Fruiting occurs in forests on fallen woody debris such as dead twigs, branches, and logs. The fungus can be made to grow and fruit in laboratory conditions, and the growth conditions affecting bioluminescence have been investigated.

<i>Roridomyces austrororidus</i> Species of fungus

Roridomyces austrororidus, commonly known as the austro dripping bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. Described as new to science in 1962 by American mycologist Rolf Singer, it is found in South America, New Zealand, and Australia, where it grows on rotting wood.

<i>Lentinellus montanus</i> Species of fungus

Lentinellus montanus is a species of agaric fungus in the family Auriscalpiaceae. It is found at high elevations in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, where it fruits singly or in clumps on decaying conifer wood.

<i>Stropharia caerulea</i> Species of fungus

Stropharia caerulea, commonly known as the blue roundhead, is a species of mushroom forming fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is a somewhat common species found in Europe and North America, where it grows as a saprophyte in meadows, roadsides, hedgerows, gardens, and woodchip mulch. S. caerulea was officially described to science in 1979, although it was known to be a distinct species for about two centuries before that. The scientific name Stropharia cyanea, as defined by Tuomikoski in 1953, and used by several later authors, is a synonym of S. caerulea.

References

  1. ↑ "Mycena purpureofusca (Peck) Sacc. :255, 1887". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Maas Geesteranus RA. (1992). Mycenas of the Northern Hemisphere. II. Conspectus of Mycenas of the Northern Hemisphere. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: North-Holland. pp. 197–9. ISBN   0-444-85760-5.
  3. 1 2 Peck CH. (1885). "Report of the Botanist (1884)". Annual Report on the New York State Museum of Natural History. 38: 77–138 (see p. 85).
  4. ↑ Saccardo PA. (1887). Sylloge Fungorum. Vol. 5. Padua, Italy: J.W. Edwards. p. 255.
  5. 1 2 Murrill WA. (1916). "Agaricaceae Tribe Agariceae". North American Flora. 9 (5): 297–374 (see p. 333).
  6. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 565. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  7. ↑ Velenovský J. (1920). České Houby. Vol. 2. Prague: České Botanické Společnosti. p. 302.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Smith AH. (1947). North American Species of Mycena. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 207–9.
  9. ↑ Singer R. (1986). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy (4th ed.). Königstein im Taunus, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books. pp. 300–1. ISBN   3-87429-254-1.
  10. ↑ Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp.  906, 910. ISBN   0898151694.
  11. ↑ Buczacki S, Shields C, Ovenden D (2012). Collins Fungi Guide: The Most Complete Field Guide to the Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Ireland. HarperCollins UK. p. 2492. ISBN   978-0-00-741343-0.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Davis RM, Sommer R, Menge JA (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 182–3. ISBN   978-0-520-95360-4.
  13. ↑ Aronsen A. "Mycena purpureofusca (Peck) Sacc". A key to the Mycenas of Norway. Archived from the original on 2014-02-28. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
  14. ↑ Mitchel DH, Smith AH (1978). "Notes on Colorado Fungi III: New and Interesting Mushrooms from the Aspen Zone". Mycologia. 70 (5): 1040–63. doi:10.2307/3759137. JSTOR   3759137.
  15. ↑ Corner EJH. (1954). "Further descriptions of luminous agarics". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 37 (3): 256–71. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(54)80009-X.
  16. 1 2 Pouska V, Lepš J, Svoboda M, Lepšova A (2011). "How do log characteristics influence the occurrence of wood fungi in a mountain spruce forest?". Fungal Ecology. 4 (3): 201–9. doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2010.11.004.
  17. ↑ Gabel AC, Gabel ML (2007). "Comparison of diversity of macrofungi and vascular plants at seven sites in the Black Hills of South Dakota". American Midland Naturalist. 157 (2): 258–96. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(2007)157[258:codoma]2.0.co;2. JSTOR   4500617. S2CID   86055421.
  18. ↑ Emmett EE. (1992). "British Mycena species — 3". Mycologist. 6 (4): 165–73. doi:10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80559-4.
  19. ↑ Scottish Natural Heritage (2006). The Nature of the Cairngorms: Diversity in a Changing Environment. The Stationery Office. p. 167. ISBN   978-0-11-497326-1.
  20. ↑ Snowarski M. (January 17, 2010). "Mycena purpureofusca (Peck) Sacc./grzybówka fioletowobrązowa (grzybówka czarnoobrzeżona)". Grzyby Polski/Fungi of Poland. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
  21. ↑ Gerhardt E. (1990). "Checkliste der Großpilze von Berlin (West) 1970–1990". Englera (in German) (13): 174. doi:10.2307/3776760. JSTOR   3776760.
  22. ↑ Sesli E, Denchev CM (2009). "Checklists of the Myxomycetes, larger Ascomycetes, and larger Basidiomycetes in Turkey". Mycotaxon. 106: 65–8.
  23. ↑ Orton PD. (1986). "Fungi of northern pine and birch woods". Bulletin of the British Mycological Society. 20 (2): 130–45. doi:10.1016/S0007-1528(86)80042-6.
  24. ↑ Tofts RJ, Orton PD (1998). "The species accumulation curve for agarics and boleti from a Caledonian pinewood". Mycologist. 12 (3): 98–102. doi:10.1016/S0269-915X(98)80002-5.
  25. ↑ Virk AP, Sharma P, Capalash N (2012). "Use of laccase in pulp and paper industry". Biotechnology Progress. 28 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1002/btpr.727. PMID   22012940. S2CID   39712221.
  26. ↑ Lorenzen K, Anke T (1998). "Basidiomycetes as a source for new bioactive natural products". Current Organic Chemistry. 2 (4): 329–64. doi:10.2174/1385272802666220128213627. S2CID   246934805.
  27. ↑ Balba H. (2007). "Review of strobilurin fungicide chemicals". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B. 42 (4): 441–5. doi:10.1080/03601230701316465. PMID   17474024. S2CID   29992238.

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