Mycena haematopus

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Mycena haematopus
Haematopus-on-oak.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Mycenaceae
Genus: Mycena
Species:
M. haematopus
Binomial name
Mycena haematopus
(Pers.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Synonyms [1]
  • Agaricus haematopusPers. (1799)
  • Mycena haematopus var. marginata J.E.Lange (1914)
  • Galactopus haematopus(Pers.) Earle (1916)
Mycena haematopus
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Conical cap icon.svgCampanulate cap icon.svg Cap is conical or campanulate
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Caution.pngEdibility is not recommended

Mycena haematopus, commonly known as the bleeding fairy helmet, the burgundydrop bonnet, or the bleeding Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is widespread and common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in old Japan and Venezuela. It is saprotrophic—meaning that it obtains nutrients by consuming decomposing organic matter—and the fruit bodies appear in small groups or clusters on the decaying logs, trunks, and stumps of deciduous trees, particularly beech. The fungus, first described scientifically in 1799, is classified in the section Lactipedes of the genus Mycena , along with other species that produce a milky or colored latex.

Contents

The fruit bodies of M. haematopus have caps that are up to 4 cm (1+5⁄8 in) wide, whitish gills, and a thin, fragile reddish-brown stem with thick coarse hairs at the base. They are characterized by their reddish color, the scalloped cap edges, and the dark red latex they "bleed" when cut or broken. Both the fruit bodies and the mycelia are weakly bioluminescent. M. haematopus produces various alkaloid pigments unique to this species. The edibility of the fruit bodies is not known definitively.

Taxonomy and naming

The species was initially named Agaricus haematopus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1799, [2] and later sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum. [3] In the classification of Fries, only a few genera were named, and most agaric mushrooms were grouped in Agaricus, which was organized into a large number of tribes. Mycena haematopus gained its current name in 1871 when the German fungal taxonomist Paul Kummer raised many of Fries' Agaricus tribes to the level of genus, including Mycena . [4] In 1909 Franklin Sumner Earle placed the species in Galactopus, [5] a genus that is no longer considered separate from Mycena. [6] Mycena haematopus is placed in the section Lactipedes, a grouping of Mycenas characterized by the presence of a milky or colored latex in the stem and flesh of the cap. [7] The specific epithet is derived from Ancient Greek roots meaning "blood" (αἱματο-, haimato-) and "foot" (πους, pous), [8] owing to the red latex than can easily be produced by breaking the mushroom at the base. [9] It is commonly known as the blood-foot mushroom, the bleeding fairy helmet, [10] the burgundydrop bonnet, [11] or the bleeding Mycena. [12]

In 1914, Jakob Emanuel Lange described the variety M. haematopus var. marginata, characterized by the reddish color on the edge of the gills; [13] Mycena specialist Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus considered the coloration of the gill edge too variable to have taxonomical significance. [14] Mycena haematopus var. cuspidata was initially found in Colorado in 1976, and described as a new variety by American mycologists Duane Mitchel and Alexander H. Smith two years later. The fruit bodies are characterized by a "beak" on the cap that often splits or collapses as the cap matures. [15] It was treated as Mycena sanguinolenta var. cuspidata by Maas Geesteranus in 1988. [14]

Description

Mycena haematopus 19292.jpg
Young fruit bodies are pruinose—as if covered with a fine white powder.
Haematopus-bleeding.jpg
Cut or injured mushroom tissue oozes a reddish latex.

The fruit bodies of Mycena haematopus are the reproductive structures produced by cellular threads or hyphae which grow in rotting wood. The shape of the cap of the fruit body will vary depending on its maturity. Young caps, or "buttons", are ovoid (egg-shaped) to conical; later they are campanulate (bell-shaped), and as the fruit body matures, the margins (cap edge) lift upward so that the cap becomes somewhat flat with an umbo (a central nipple-shaped bump). [16] The fully grown cap can reach up to 4 cm (1+5⁄8 in) in diameter. The surface of the cap initially appears dry and covered with what appears to be a very fine whitish powder, but it soon becomes polished and moist. Mature caps appear somewhat translucent, and develop radial grooves mirroring the position of the gills underneath. [17] The color of the cap is reddish- or pinkish-brown, often tinged with violet, and paler towards the edge. The margin is wavy like the edge of a scallop, and may appear ragged because of lingering remnants of the partial veil.

The mushroom flesh can range from pale to the color of red wine (vinaceous), and has no distinctive odor. It oozes a red latex when cut. [12] The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem, meaning they are more or less directly attached to it. They are initially whitish or "grayish vinaceous" in color, and can develop reddish-brown stains. Between 20 and 30 gills reach from the cap edge to the stem, resulting in a gill spacing that is described as "close to subdistant"—gaps are visible between adjacent gills. There are additional gills, called lamellulae, that do not extend directly from the margin to the stem; these are arranged in two or three series (tiers) of equal length. The stem is up to 9 cm (3+1⁄2 in) tall and 0.1 to 0.2 cm (1⁄32 to 3⁄32 in) thick, hollow and brittle, and a dark reddish-brown color. In young fruit bodies, the upper part of the stem is densely covered with a pale cinnamon-colored powder which wears off with age. The stem has a mass of coarse hairs at the base. Like the cap, the stem also bleeds a red latex when it is cut or broken. [16] [17]

Mycena haematopus can be parasitized by Spinellus fusiger , another fungal species which gives the mushroom a strikingly hairy appearance. [8] [18]

Mycena haematopus parasitized by the bonnet mold Spinellus fusiger Spinellus fusiger 51504.jpg
Mycena haematopus parasitized by the bonnet mold Spinellus fusiger

Microscopic characteristics

The spore print is white. The spores are elliptical, smooth, with dimensions of 8–11 by 5–7  µm. They are amyloid, meaning they will absorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent. [18] The spore-bearing cells (basidia) are 4-spored. Sterile cells called cystidia are numerous on the edges on the gills; they measure 33–60 µm (sometimes up to 80) by 9–12 µm. Cystidia that are present on the stipe (caulocystidia) appear in clusters, and clublike to irregular in shape, measuring 20–55 by 3.5–12.5 µm. [19] The gill tissue contains numerous lactifers, cells that produce the latex that is secreted when it is cut. [17]

The surface mycelium of M. haematopus is whitish and fluffy. Swelling at the terminal tips of hyphae (diameter up to 12 µm) is present, but not very abundant, and moniliform hyphae are very rare. Bioluminescence is present, but weak. Extracellular oxidase enzymes are present, consistent with its ecological role as a saprobe. [20]

Edibility

Although some sources claim that M. haematopus is edible, [21] [22] it is "hardly worth collecting because of its small size." [12] Other sources consider the species inedible, [23] or recommend avoiding consumption, "since most of them have not yet been tested for toxins." [8] The taste of the mushroom is mild to slightly bitter. [24]

Similar species

Another Mycena that produces a reddish latex is Mycena sanguinolenta, the "terrestrial bleeding Mycena". It may be distinguished from M. haematopus in several ways: it is smaller, with cap diameters between 0.3 to 1 cm (1⁄8 to 3⁄8 in) wide; grows in groups rather than clusters; is found on leaves, dead branches, moss beds and pine needle beds rather than decaying wood; and the edges of its gills are consistently dark brownish-red. [25] Furthermore, range of cap color in M. sanguinolenta is different than in M. haematopus, varying from reddish-to orange-brown, and it lacks a band of partial veil remnants hanging from the margin. [22]

Other similar species include Mycena californiensis and M. purpureofusca . [26]

Ecology, distribution and habitat

Fruit bodies typically grow in clusters joined at a common base. Mycena haematopus 56359.jpg
Fruit bodies typically grow in clusters joined at a common base.

Mycena haematopus obtains nutrients from decomposing organic matter (saprobic) and the fruit bodies can typically be found growing on stumps and well-decayed logs, usually in groups that are joined together by a common base. The decomposition of woody debris on the forest floor is the result of the combined activity of a community of fungal species. In the sequential succession of mushrooms species, M. haematopus is a "late colonizer" fungus: its fruit bodies appear after the wood has first been decayed by white rot species. The initial stage of wood decay by white rot fungi involves the breakdown of "acid-unhydrolyzable residue" and holocellulose (a mixture of cellulose and hemicellulose). [27]

In North America, Mycena haematopus is known to be distributed from Alaska southward. [16] According to Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith, it is "the commonest and the most easily recognized one in the genus." [17] The species is common in Europe, [12] and it has also been collected from Japan, [28] and Mérida, Venezuela, as the variety M. haematopus var. marginata. [29] In the Netherlands, M. haematopus is one of many mushrooms that can regularly be found fruiting on ancient timber wharves. [30] The fruit bodies can be found year-round in mild weather. [31]

Bioluminescence

Both the mycelia [20] and the fruit bodies of M. haematopus (both young and mature specimens) are reported to be bioluminescent. However, the luminescence is quite weak, and not visible to the dark-adapted eye; in one study, light emission was detectable only after 20 hours of exposure to X-ray film. [32] Although the biochemical basis of bioluminescence in M. haematopus has not been scientifically investigated, in general, bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases, enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin (a pigment). [33] The biological purpose of bioluminescence in fungi is not definitively known, although several hypotheses have been suggested: it may help attract insects to help with spore dispersal, [34] it may be a by-product of other biochemical functions, [35] or it may help deter heterotrophs that might consume the fungus. [34]

Natural products

Haematopodin B.png
Haematopodin.png
Haematopodin B (left) and its more stable breakdown product Haematopodin (right)

Several unique chemicals are produced by Mycena haematopus. The primary pigment is haematopodin B, which is so chemically sensitive (breaking down upon exposure to air and light) that its more stable breakdown product, haematopodin, [36] was known before its eventual discovery and characterization in 2008. [37] A chemical synthesis for haematopodin was reported in 1996. [38] Haematopodins are the first pyrroloquinoline alkaloids discovered in fungi; pyrroloquinolines combine the structures of pyrrole and quinoline, both heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds. Compounds of this type also occur in marine sponges and are attracting research interest due to various biological properties, such as cytotoxicity against tumor cell lines, and both antifungal and antimicrobial activities. [36] Additional alkaloid compounds in M. haematopus include the red pigments mycenarubins D, E and F. Prior to the discovery of these compounds, pyrroloquinoline alkaloids were considered to be rare in terrestrial sources. [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Mycena</i> Genus of fungi

Mycena is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. The name Mycena comes from the Ancient Greek μύκηςmykes, meaning "fungus". Species in the genus Mycena are commonly known as bonnets.

<i>Mycena galericulata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet, the toque mycena, the common mycena or the rosy-gill fairy helmet. The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772, but was not considered a Mycena until 1821. It is quite variable in color, size, and shape, which makes it somewhat difficult to reliably identify in the field. The mushrooms have caps with distinct radial grooves, particularly at the margin. The cap's color varies from grayish brown to dark brown and the shape ranges from bell-like to bluntly conical to flattened with an umbo. The stem is hollow, white, tough and thin, without a ring and often roots deeply into the wood on which it grows. The gills are white to grayish or even pinkish when mature and are connected by distinct cross-veins. The caps can reach 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter, and have a mealy odor and taste. The spore print is white and the gills are pink at maturity, which can lead to possible confusion with species of the genus Pluteus. M. galericulata mushrooms grow mostly in clusters on the well-decayed stumps of deciduous and coniferous trees from spring to autumn. The species can generally be considered inedible. It is common and widespread in the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, but it has also been reported from Africa.

<i>Mycena adscendens</i> Species of fungus

Mycena adscendens, commonly known as the frosty bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The fungus produces small white fruit bodies (mushrooms) with caps up to 7.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter that appear to be dusted with sugar-like granules. Caps are supported by thin, hollow stems up to 20 mm (0.8 in) long, which are set on a disc-like base. Its distribution includes Europe, Turkey and the Pacific coast of the United States. The fruit bodies grow on fallen twigs and other woody debris on the forest floor, including fallen hazel nuts. The variety carpophila is known from Japan. There are several small white Mycena species that are similar in appearance to M. adscendens, some of which can be reliably distinguished only by examining microscopic characteristics.

<i>Mycena leptocephala</i> Species of fungus

Mycena leptocephala, commonly known as the nitrous bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms have conical grayish caps that reach up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, and thin fragile stems up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. The gills are gray and distantly spaced. The spores are elliptical, typically measure 7–10 by 4–6 μm, and are white in deposit. When viewed under a light microscope, the gills have abundant spindle-shaped cystidia on the gill edges, but few on the gill faces. The mushroom is found in North America, Asia, and Europe where it grows singly or in groups on conifer needles, cones and sticks on the forest floor. It has a distinctive odor of bleach; the edibility is unknown. Similar species include Mycena alcalina, M. austera, and M. brevipes.

<i>Mycena sanguinolenta</i> Species of fungus

Mycena sanguinolenta, commonly known as the bleeding bonnet, the smaller bleeding Mycena, or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and widely distributed species, and has been found in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus produces reddish-brown to reddish-purple fruit bodies with conic to bell-shaped caps up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm (2.4 in) high. When fresh, the fruit bodies will "bleed" a dark reddish-purple sap. The similar Mycena haematopus is larger, and grows on decaying wood, usually in clumps. M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species, may produce an antifungal compound, and is bioluminescent. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined.

<i>Mycena nargan</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena nargan, commonly known as the Nargan's bonnet, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, and the sole member of the section Nargan in the genus Mycena. Reported as a new species in 1995, it is known predominantly from Southern Australia. The saprobic fungus produces mushrooms that grow on well-decayed wood, often on the underside of wood lying in litter. The dark chestnut-coloured caps are covered with white, easily removed scales, and reach diameters of up to 2 cm (0.8 in) wide. The pale, slender stems are up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long and have white scales at the base. On the underside of the cap, the cream-coloured gills are widely spaced and bluntly attached to the stem. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Mycena overholtsii</i> Species of fungus

Mycena overholtsii, commonly known as the snowbank fairy helmet or fuzzy foot, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The mushrooms produced by the fungus are relatively large for the genus Mycena, with convex grayish caps up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter and stems up to 15 cm (6 in) long. The gills on the underside of the cap are whitish to pale gray, and initially closely spaced before becoming well-spaced at maturity after the cap enlarges. The mushrooms are characterized by the dense covering of white "hairs" on the base of the stem. M. overholtsii is an example of a snowbank fungus, growing on well-decayed conifer logs near snowbanks, during or just after snowmelt. Formerly known only from high-elevation areas of western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain and Cascade regions, it was reported for the first time in Japan in 2010. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. M. overholtsii can be distinguished from other comparable species by differences in location, or spore size.

<i>Panellus stipticus</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae found in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America

Panellus stipticus, commonly known as the bitter oyster, the astringent panus, the luminescent panellus, or the stiptic fungus, is a species of fungus. It belongs in the family Mycenaceae, and the type species of the genus Panellus. A common and widely distributed species, it is found in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America, where it grows in groups or dense overlapping clusters on the logs, stumps, and trunks of deciduous trees, especially beech, oak, and birch. During the development of the fruit bodies, the mushrooms start out as tiny white knobs, which, over a period of one to three months, develop into fan- or kidney-shaped caps that measure up to 3 cm (1.2 in) broad. The caps are orange-yellow to brownish, and attached to the decaying wood by short stubby stalks that are connected off-center or on the side of the caps. The fungus was given its current scientific name in 1879, but has been known by many names since French mycologist Jean Bulliard first described it as Agaricus stypticus in 1783. Molecular phylogenetic analysis revealed P. stipticus to have a close genetic relationship with members of the genus Mycena.

<i>Mycena californiensis</i> Species of fungus

Mycena californiensis is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is a common and abundant species in the coastal oak woodlands of California, where it grows saprobically, feeding on the fallen leaves and acorns of various oak species. First described in 1860 by Berkeley and Curtis, the species was collected four years earlier during an exploring and surveying expedition. It was subsequently considered a doubtful species by later Mycena researchers, until a 1999 publication validated the taxon. Mycena elegantula is considered a synonym.

<i>Mycena clariviolacea</i> Species of fungus

Mycena clariviolacea is a mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First reported as a new species in 2007, it is known only from Kanagawa, Japan, where it fruits on dead fallen twigs in forests dominated by oak and chinquapin trees. Distinctive features of this species are found in its medium-sized, dark violet fruit bodies, with caps up to 25 mm (0.98 in) in diameter and slender stems that are about 30 to 40 mm long. Microscopic characteristics include the amyloid spores, the club-shaped cheilocystidia that are covered with one or more, knob-like, apical protuberances, the absence of pleurocystidia, and the cylindrical, diverticulate caulocystidia.

<i>Mycena fonticola</i> Species of fungus

Mycena fonticola is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First reported in 2007, it is known only from central Honshu, in Japan, where it grows on dead leaves and twigs in low-elevation forests dominated by oak trees. The fruit body of the fungus has a smooth, violet-brown cap up to 2.5 cm (1.0 in) in diameter, and a slender stem up to 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Distinguishing microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the relatively large, distinctly amyloid spores, the smooth, spindle-shaped cheilocystidia, the absence of pleurocystidia, the diverticulate hyphae of the cap cuticle, and the absence of clamp connections.

<i>Mycena intersecta</i> Species of fungus

Mycena intersecta is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First reported as a new species in 2007, it is known only from central Honshu, in Japan, where it is found growing solitarily or scattered, on dead leaves in lowland forests dominated by oak. The mushrooms have olive-brown caps up to 12 mm (0.47 in) in diameter atop slender stems that are 50 to 80 mm long by 0.7 to 1.2 mm thick. On the underside of the cap are the distantly spaced, whitish gills that have cross-veins running between them. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the smooth, irregularly cylindrical cheilocystidia, the absence of pleurocystidia, the diverticulate elements of the cap cuticle, the broadly club-shaped to irregularly shaped caulocystidia, the weakly dextrinoid flesh, and the absence of clamp connections. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Mycena lanuginosa</i> Species of fungus

Mycena lanuginosa is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First collected in 2000 and reported as a new species in 2007, it is known only from lowland oak-dominated forests in central Honshu in Japan. The small mushroom is characterized by its grooved, grayish-brown to violet-brown cap up to 11 mm (0.43 in) in diameter, and the slender grayish-brown to reddish-brown stem covered with minute, fine, soft hairs. The mushroom produces amyloid spores. Microscopic distinguishing features include the smooth, spindle-shaped cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia and the diverticulate elements in the outer layer of the cap and the stem.

<i>Mycena multiplicata</i> Species of fungus

Mycena multiplicata is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First described as a new species in 2007, the mushroom is known only from the prefecture of Kanagawa, Japan, where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests dominated by oak. The mushroom has a whitish cap that reaches up to 13 mm (0.51 in) in diameter atop a slender stem 15 to 20 mm long and 1 to 1.3 mm thick. On the underside of the cap are whitish, distantly spaced gills that are narrowly attached to the stem. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the amyloid spores, the pear-shaped to broadly club-shaped cheilocystidia which are covered with a few to numerous, unevenly spaced, cylindrical protuberances, the lack of pleurocystidia, and the diverticulate hyphae in the outer layer of the cap and stem. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Mycena mustea</i> Species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena mustea is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. First described as a new species in 2007, the fungus is known only from Kanagawa, Japan, where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests. The mushroom's dull violet to grayish-violet cap, initially covered with a fine whitish powder, becomes smooth as it matures, and eventually reaches a diameter of up to 10 mm (0.39 in). The stem is slender, up to 90 mm (3.5 in) long, and is covered with stiff white hairs at the base. Underneath the cap are distantly spaced pale brownish gills that are narrowly attached to the stem. Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the weakly amyloid spores, the club-shaped cheilocystidia featuring one or more short knob-like protuberances, the absence of pleurocystidia, the diverticulate cap cuticle hyphae, and the absence of clamp connections.

<i>Mycena maculata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena maculata, commonly known as the reddish-spotted Mycena, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have conic to bell-shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish-gray when young, reaching diameters of up to 4 cm. They are typically wrinkled or somewhat grooved, and have reddish-brown spots in age, or after being cut or bruised. The whitish to pale gray gills also become spotted reddish-brown as they mature. The stem, up to 8 cm (3 in) long and covered with whitish hairs at its base, can also develop reddish stains. The mycelium of M. maculata has bioluminescent properties. The saprobic fungus is found in Europe and North America, where it grows in groups or clusters on the rotting wood of both hardwoods and conifers. The edibility of the fungus is unknown. Although the species is known for, and named after its propensity to stain reddish, occasionally these stains do not appear, making it virtually indistinguishable from M. galericulata.

<i>Mycena aurantiomarginata</i> Species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae common in Europe and North America

Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First formally described in 1803, it was given its current name in 1872. Widely distributed, it is common in Europe and North America, and has also been collected in North Africa, Central America, and Japan. The fungus is saprobic, and produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests. The mushrooms have a bell-shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm in diameter, set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm long with yellow to orange hairs at the base. The fungus is named after its characteristic bright orange gill edges. A microscopic characteristic is the club-shaped cystidia that are covered with numerous spiky projections, resembling a mace. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. M. aurantiomarginata can be distinguished from similar Mycena species by differences in size, color, and substrate. A 2010 publication reported the discovery and characterization of a novel pigment named mycenaaurin A, isolated from the mushroom. The pigment is responsible for its color, and it has antibiotic activity that may function to prevent certain bacteria from growing on the mushroom.

<i>Mycena atkinsoniana</i> Species of fungus

Mycena atkinsoniana is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. It is one of the so-called "bleeding mycenas" that will ooze yellow to orange juice when injured. Other distinguishing features include the upper stem surface that is decorated with tiny purplish-brown fibers, and the gills, which are pale yellow with maroon edges. The reddish-brown caps are smooth with a grooved margin, and up to 3 cm (1.2 in) wide. Mycena atkinsoniana is known from the United States and Canada, where it grows scattered or in groups on leaf litter in forests during the summer and autumn. It was originally described from collections associated with beech, but it is also frequently found under eastern North American oaks.

<i>Mycena chlorophos</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae

Mycena chlorophos is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described in 1860, the fungus is found in subtropical Asia, including India, Japan, Taiwan, Polynesia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, in Australia, and Brazil. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) have pale brownish-grey sticky caps up to 30 mm (1.2 in) in diameter atop stems 6–30 mm (0.2–1.2 in) long and up to a millimeter thick. The mushrooms are bioluminescent and emit a pale green light. Fruiting occurs in forests on fallen woody debris such as dead twigs, branches, and logs. The fungus can be made to grow and fruit in laboratory conditions, and the growth conditions affecting bioluminescence have been investigated.

<i>Mycena purpureofusca</i> Species of fungus

Mycena purpureofusca, commonly known as the purple edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885, the species is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers, including cones. Fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped purple caps up to 2.5 cm (1 in) set atop slender stipes up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish-purple color of its gill edges. In the field, M. purpureofusca mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes.

References

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  2. ↑ Persoon CH. (1799). Observationes mycologicae (in Latin). Vol. 2. Leipzig, Germany: Gesnerus, Usterius & Wolfius. p. 56.
  3. ↑ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Lundae: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 149.
  4. ↑ Kummer P. (1871). Der Führer in die Pilzkunde (in German). Zerbst. p. 109.
  5. ↑ Earle FS. (1906). "The genera of North American gill fungi". Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden. 5: 373–451.
  6. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford: CAB International. p. 270. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  7. ↑ Smith, 1947, p. 132.
  8. 1 2 3 Volk T. (June 2002). "Mycena haematopus, the blood-foot mushroom". Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month. UW-Madison Department of Botany. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
  9. ↑ Trudell, Steve; Ammirati, Joe (2009). Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Timber Press Field Guides. Portland, OR: Timber Press. p. 126. ISBN   978-0-88192-935-5.
  10. ↑ Sept JD. (2006). Common Mushrooms of the Northwest: Alaska, Western Canada & the Northwestern United States. Sechelt, BC, Canada: Calypso Publishing. p. 32. ISBN   978-0-9739819-0-2.
  11. ↑ Marren, Peter (2009-10-29). "The magic of Britain's wild mushrooms". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2009-11-06. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
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  13. ↑ Lange JE. (1914). "Studies in the Agarics of Denmark. Part I. Mycena". Dansk Botanisk Arkiv. 1 (5): 1–40.
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  19. ↑ Aronsen A. "Mycena haematopus (Pers.) P. Kumm". A key to the Mycenas of Norway. Archived from the original on 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
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  21. ↑ McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Plate 19. ISBN   978-0-395-91090-0.
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  24. ↑ Kuo M (December 2010). "Mycena haematopus". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  25. ↑ Smith, 1947, pp. 146–49.
  26. ↑ Davis, R. Michael; Sommer, Robert; Menge, John A. (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN   978-0-520-95360-4. OCLC   797915861.
  27. ↑ Fukasawa Y, Osono T, Takeda H (2008). "Dynamics of physicochemical properties and occurrence of fungal fruit bodies during decomposition of coarse woody debris of Fagus crenata". Journal of Forest Research. 14: 20–29. doi:10.1007/s10310-008-0098-0. S2CID   39919592.
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  29. ↑ Dennis RWG. (1961). "Fungi venezuelani: IV. Agaricales". Kew Bulletin. 15 (1): 67–156. doi:10.2307/4115784. JSTOR   4115784.
  30. ↑ De Held-Jager CM. (1979). "The mushrooms of timber wharves in the vicinity of Gouda Netherlands". Coolia. 22 (2): 52–56. ISSN   0929-7839.
  31. ↑ Bessette A, Bessette AR, Fischer DW (1997). Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Hong Kong: Syracuse University Press. pp. 211–12. ISBN   978-0-8156-0388-7.
  32. ↑ Bermudes D, Petersen RH, Nealson KH (1992). "Low-level bioluminescence detected in Mycena haematopus basidiocarps" (PDF). Mycologia . 84 (5): 799–802. doi:10.2307/3760392. hdl: 10211.2/2130 . JSTOR   3760392.
  33. ↑ Shimomura O. (2006). Bioluminescence: Chemical Principles and Methods. Singapore: World Scientific. pp. 268–75. ISBN   978-981-256-801-4.
  34. 1 2 Sivinski J. (1981). "Arthropods attracted to luminous fungi". Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 88 (3–4): 383–90. doi: 10.1155/1981/79890 .
  35. ↑ Buller AHR. (1924). "The bioluminescence of Panus stypticus". Researches on Fungi. Vol. III. London: Longsman, Green and Co. pp. 357–431.
  36. 1 2 Baumann C, Bröckelmann M, Fugmann B, Steffan B, Steglich W, Sheldrick WS (1993). "Pigments of fungi. 62. Haematopodin, an unusual pyrroloquinoline derivative isolated from the fungus Mycena haematopus, Agaricales". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 32 (7): 1087–89. doi:10.1002/anie.199310871.
  37. 1 2 Peters S, Jaeger RJR, Spiteller P (2008). "Red pyrroloquinoline alkaloids from the mushroom Mycena haematopus". European Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2008 (2): 319–23. doi:10.1002/ejoc.200700739.
  38. ↑ Hopmann C, Steglich W (1996). "Synthesis of haematopodin – A pigment from the mushroom Mycena haematopus (Basidiomycetes)". Liebigs Annalen. 1996 (7): 1117–20. doi:10.1002/jlac.199619960709.

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