Napa cabbage

Last updated

Napa cabbage
Napa cabbages.png
Species Brassica rapa
Cultivar group Pekinensis Group
OriginChina, before the 15th century

Napa cabbage ( Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis or Brassica rapa Pekinensis Group) is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has also become a widespread crop in Europe, the Americas and Australia. In much of the world, it is referred to as "Chinese cabbage". In Australia it is sometimes referred to as "wombok".

Contents

Names

Regional names
Chinese.cabbage-01.jpg
Napa cabbages
Chinese cabbage, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 68 kJ (16 kcal)
3.2 g
Dietary fiber 1.2 g
Fat
0.2 g
1.2 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin C
33%
27 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
8%
77 mg
Iron
2%
0.31 mg
Magnesium
4%
13 mg
Sodium
1%
9 mg
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Napa cabbage is a cool season annual vegetable which grows best when the days are short and mild. The plant grows to an oblong shaped head consisting of tightly arranged crinkly, thick, light-green leaves with prominent white veins. Innermost layer leaves feature light yellow color. [17]

Napa cabbage belongs to the family Brassicaceae, commonly called the mustard or cabbage family. As a cruciferous plant it is closely related to species of Brassica like broccoli, bok choy and cauliflower. [18] [19]

Napa cabbage is widely used in China, Japan, and Korea. [20] Napa cabbage is used as a sign of prosperity in China, [21] and often appears as a symbol in glass and porcelain figures. The Jadeite Cabbage sculpture of Taiwan's National Palace Museum is a carving of a napa cabbage variety. It is also found in North American and Australian cities after Asian immigrants settled in the regions.[ citation needed ]

Fermented Napa cabbage (suan cai/sauerkraut) is a traditional food in Northeast China. [22]

In Korean cuisine, napa cabbage is the main ingredient of baechu-kimchi , the most common type of kimchi, but is also eaten raw as a wrap for pork or oysters, dipped in gochujang. [23] The outer, tougher leaves are used in soups. It can be used in stir-fry with other ingredients, such as tofu, mushroom and zucchini. It is also eaten with hot pot meals. Napa cabbage is particularly popular in South Korea's northern Gangwon Province. [20] In European, American and Australian kitchens, it is more common to eat it cooked or raw as salad. [24]

The vegetable is rich in vitamin C (26 mg/100g) and has a fair amount of calcium (40 mg/100g). [25] It tastes mildly aromatic.[ citation needed ]

Cultivation

Napa cabbage can be cultivated in many different areas of the world, the main area of diversification represents Asia. [19]

Soil requirements

Napa cabbage requires deeply loosened medium heavy soil. There must not be any compaction due to plowing. The crop achieves particularly high yields on sandy loam. Extremely sandy or claylike soils are not suitable. [15] The crop prefers a pH range from 6.0 to 6.2, a high organic matter content and good moisture holding capacity of the soil. Lower pH or droughty soil can lead to calcium or magnesium deficiency and internal quality defects. [26]

Climate requirements

Napa cabbage needs much water during the whole growth period. [27] Often an irrigation system is needed, especially for August and September. [15] The required amount of water depends on the stage of crop growth, weather conditions, and soil type. The most critical stage after establishment is when the head is forming. Inadequate water at this time will result in reduced uptake of calcium. This condition causes dead leaf tips within the head which makes it unmarketable. During head formation, 25 to 40 mm (1 to 1+1⁄2 in) of water per week is needed to maintain sustained growth rates. [26]

Temperature requirements are low. Temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are tolerated for short time periods; persistent frosts below −5 °C (23 °F) are not endured. [15] Too low temperature can induce premature bolting. The plants perform best under temperatures between 13 and 21 °C (55 and 70 °F), but depending on the cultivar. [28]

Seedbed requirements & sowing

Napa cabbage has very small seeds with a thousand kernel weight of about 2.5 to 2.8 g. For professional cultivation it is recommended to use disinfected seeds to prevent onset diseases. With the single-grain sowing technique, about 400 to 500 g of seeds per hectare is required; with the normal sowing technique, about 1 kg per hectare. If the normal sowing technique is used, the seedlings must be thinned out after two to four weeks. The seeds should be deposited 1 to 2 cm (0.39 to 0.79 in) deep, with a row width of 40 to 45 cm (16 to 18 in) and 25 to 30 cm (9.8 to 11.8 in) distance between the seeds.[ citation needed ]

The seedlings can be grown in the greenhouse and then transplanted into the field after two to three weeks. Earlier harvest can be achieved with this method. Seventy thousand to 80,000 seedlings per hectare are required. [15] [27] The transplanting method is normally used for the spring crop and the seeding technique for the fall crop. [28]

Fertilization, field management

The nutrient removal of napa cabbage is high: [15]

Fertilizer recommendations are in the range of the nutrient removal. [15] [27] [29] Organic fertilizer must be applied before sowing due to the short cultivation time of napa cabbage and the slow availability of organic fertilizers. Synthetic N fertilizer should be applied in three equal doses. The last application must happen before two thirds of the cultivation time is over to avoid quality losses during storage.[ citation needed ]

Weeds should be controlled mechanically or chemically. [15]

Harvest, storage and yield

Harvested napa cabbage being loaded on a truck in Tonghai County, Yunnan Tonghai Xian - Gaoda Daizu Yizu Xiang - P1360659.JPG
Harvested napa cabbage being loaded on a truck in Tonghai County, Yunnan

Napa cabbage can be harvested 8–12 weeks after sowing. The harvest work is mostly done by hand. The plant is cut 2.5 cm (0.98 in) above the ground. It is usual to harvest several times per field to achieve consistent cabbage quality. Cabbages will keep in good condition for three to four months in cool stores at 0–1 °C (32–34 °F) and 85 to 90 percent relative humidity. [15] Napa cabbage achieves a yield of 4 to 5 kg/m2. [19]

Breeding

Brassica rapa species are diploid and have 10 chromosomes. A challenge for breeding of napa cabbage is the variable self-incompatibility. The self-incompatibility activity was reported to change by temperature and humidity. In vitro pollination with 98% relative humidity proved to be the most reliable as compared to greenhouse pollination.[ citation needed ]

A lot of work has already been done on breeding of napa cabbage. In the 21st century, 880 varieties of Napa cabbage were registered by the Korea Seed and Variety Service. [12]

Breeding of napa cabbage was started by the Korean government research station of horticultural demonstration in 1906 to overcome starvation. As napa cabbage and radish are the main vegetables for kimchi, research focused on increasing yield. The most important person for this process was Dr. Woo Jang-choon who bred hybrid cultivars with self-incompatibility and contributed to commercial breeding by developing valuable materials and educating students. The main purpose of the hybrid cultivar was high yield and year-round production of napa cabbage after 1960. [12]

To enable year round production of napa cabbage, it has to be modified to tolerate high and low temperatures. Normally, sowing in the late summer and harvesting in late autumn can produce high quality vegetables. As an example, a summer cultivar called “Nae-Seo-beak-ro” was developed 1973 by a commercial seed company. It tolerates high temperatures, could endure high humidity in the monsoon, and showed resistance to viral disease, soft rot and downy mildew. The low temperature in early spring reduces the quality of the vegetable and it cannot be used for kimchi. In the 1970s the developing of winter cultivars started. The majority of new cultivars could not endure the cold winter conditions and disappeared. The cultivar “Dong-Pung” (meaning “east wind”) was developed in 1992 and showed a high resistance to cold temperature. It is mostly used in Korea, where fresh napa cabbage is nowadays cultivated year round. [11]

In the 1970s, one seed company developed the rose-shape heading variety while other seed companies focused on the semi-folded heading type. As a result of continuous breeding in the commercial seed companies and the government research stations, farmers could now select what they wanted from among various high quality hybrids of Chinese cabbage. [12] The fall season cultivar 'Yuki', with white ribs and tight leaf folding, gained the RHS's Award of Garden Merit (AGM) in 2003. [30]

In 1988, the first cultivar with yellow inner leaf was introduced. This trait has prevailed until today. [12]

A very important breeding aim is to get varieties with resistance to pests and diseases. There exist varieties with resistance to turnip mosaic virus but as mentioned above, there exist numerous other diseases. There have been attempts to breed varieties with clubroot resistance or powdery mildew resistance but the varieties failed due to bad leaf texture traits or broken resistances. [12]

Pests and diseases

Fungal diseases

Alternaria diseases are caused by the organisms Alternaria brassicae , Alternaria brassicicola and Alternaria japonica . Their English names are black spot (not to be confused with midrib 'pepper spots' which are physiological in origin and often result from improper storage), pod spot, gray leaf spot, dark leaf spot or Alternaria blight. The symptoms can be seen on all aboveground plant parts as dark spots. The infected plants are shrivelled and smaller than normal. Alternaria diseases infect almost all brassica plants, the most important hosts are oilseed brassicas. The fungus is a facultative parasite, what means that it can survive on living hosts as well as on dead plant tissue. Infected plant debris is in most circumstances the primary source of inoculum. The spores can be dispersed by wind to host plants in the field or to neighbouring brassica crops. This is why cross infections often occur in areas where different brassica crops are cultivated in close proximity. The disease spreads especially fast when the weather is wet and the plants have reached maturity. Alternaria brassicae is well adapted to temperate regions while Alternaria brassicicola occurs primarily in warmer parts of the world. Temperature requirement for Alternaria japonica is intermediate. [28] There exist some wild accessions of Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis with resistance to Alternaria brassicae but not on commercial cultivars. These resistances should be included to breeding programmes. Alternaria epidemics are best avoided by management practices like at least 3 years non-host crops between brassica crops, incorporation of plant debris into the soil to accelerate decomposition and usage of disease-free seeds. [28]

Anhracnose is a brassica disease caused by Colletotrichum higginsianum that is especially damaging on napa cabbage, pak choi, turnip, rutabaga and tender green mustard. The symptoms are dry pale gray to straw spots or lesions on the leaves. The recommended management practices are the same as for Alternaria diseases. [28]

Black root is a disease that infects mainly radish, but it also occurs on many other brassica vegetables inclusively napa cabbage. It caused by the fungus Aphanomyces raphani . The pathogen can persist for long times in the soil, therefore crop rotations are an essential management tool. [28]

White leaf spot is found primarily in temperate climate regions and is important on vegetable brassicas and oilseed rape. The causal organism is Mycosphaerella capsellae . The symptoms are white spots on leaves, stems and pods and can thus easily be confused with those of downy mildew. The disease spreads especially fast with rain or moisture and temperature is between 10 and 15 °C (50 and 59 °F). [28]

Yellows, also called Fusarium wilt, is another Brassica disease that infects oilseed rape, cabbage, mustards, Napa cabbage and other vegetable brassicas. It is only a problem in regions with warm growing seasons where soil temperatures are in the range of 18 to 32 °C. The causal organism is Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conlutinans. Napa cabbage is relatively tolerant to the disease; mostly the only external symptoms are yellowing of lower, older leaves. The disease is soil borne and can survive for many years in the absence of a host. Most cruciferous weeds can serve as alternate hosts. [28]

Damping-Off is a disease in temperate areas caused by soil inhabiting oomycetes like Phytophthora cactorum and Pythium spp. The disease concerns seedlings, which often collapse and die. [28]

Other diseases that infect napa cabbage:

Bacterial diseases

Bacterial soft rot is considered one of the most important diseases of vegetable brassicas. The disease is particularly damaging in warm humid climate. The causal organisms are Erwinia carotovora var. carotovora and Pseudomonas marginalis pv. marginalis. The rot symptoms can occur in the field, on produce transit or in storage. Bacteria survive mainly on plant residues in the soil. They are spread by insects and by cultural practices, such as irrigation water and farm machinery. The disease is tolerant to low temperatures; it can spread in storages close to 0 °C, by direct contact and by dripping onto the plants below. Bacterial soft rot is more severe on crops which have been fertilized too heavily with nitrogen, had late nitrogen applications, or are allowed to become over-mature before harvesting. [28]

Black rot, the most important disease of vegetable brassicas, is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. [28]

Virus diseases

source: [28]

Insect pests

source: [26] [31]

Other pests and diseases

Aster yellows is a disease caused by a phytoplasm. [28]

Nematodes are disease agents that are often overlooked but they can cause considerable yield losses. The adult nematodes have limited active movement but their eggs contained within cysts (dead females) are readily spread with soil, water, equipment or seedlings. [28]

Parasitic nematode species that cause damage on napa cabbage:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turnip</span> Type of root vegetable

The turnip or white turnip is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, fleshy taproot. Small, tender varieties are grown for human consumption, while larger varieties are grown as feed for livestock. "Turnip" is also used in Northern England, Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall, Devon, and parts of Canada, to regularly refer to rutabaga, also known as neep or swede, a larger, yellow root vegetable in the same genus (Brassica).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cabbage</span> Leafy vegetable in the flowering plant family Brassicaceae

Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage, and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower ; Brussels sprouts ; and Savoy cabbage.

<i>Brassica</i> Genus of flowering plants in the cabbage family Brassicaceae

Brassica is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family (Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, mustard plants, or simply brassicas. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, denoting the stem or stalk of a plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cauliflower</span> Vegetable in the species Brassica oleracea

Cauliflower is one of several vegetables cultivated from the species Brassica oleracea in the genus Brassica, which is in the Brassicaceae family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rapeseed</span> Oilseed, Brassica, food, feed, industry

Rapeseed, also known as oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae, cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. The term "canola" denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars that were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and which are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collard (plant)</span> Variety of plant

Collard is a group of loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables including cabbage and broccoli. Part of the Acephala (kale) cultivar group, it is also classified as the variety B. oleracea var. viridis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese cabbage</span> Vegetable of the bok choy plant

Chinese cabbage is either of two cultivar groups of leaf vegetables often used in Chinese cuisine: the Pekinensis Group and the Chinensis Group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bok choy</span> Subspecies of flowering plant

Bok choy, pak choi or pok choi is a type of Chinese cabbage, used as food. Chinensis varieties do not form heads and have green leaf blades with lighter bulbous bottoms instead, forming a cluster reminiscent of mustard greens. It has a flavor between spinach and water chestnuts but is slightly sweeter, with a mildly peppery undertone. The green leaves have a stronger flavor than the white bulb.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Choy sum</span> Leafy vegetable

Choy sum is a leafy vegetable commonly used in Chinese cuisine. It is a member of the genus Brassica of the mustard family, Brassicaceae. Choy sum is a transliteration of the Cantonese name, which can be literally translated as "heart of the vegetable". Choy sum is also called yu choy. It is also known as Chinese flowering cabbage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaf vegetable</span> Plant leaves eaten as a vegetable

Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad greens.

<i>Brassica rapa</i> Species of flowering plant

Brassica rapa is a plant species growing in various widely cultivated forms including the turnip ; Komatsuna, napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and rapini.

<i>Brassica juncea</i> Species of flowering plant

Brassica juncea, commonly brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, Oriental mustard and vegetable mustard, is a species of mustard plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clubroot</span> Common fungal disease of plants of the family Brassicaceae

Clubroot is a common disease of cabbages, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, radishes, turnips, stocks, wallflowers and other plants of the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). It is caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, which was once considered a slime mold but is now put in the group Phytomyxea. It is the first phytomyxean for which the genome has been sequenced. It has as many as thirteen races. Gall formation or distortion takes place on latent roots and gives the shape of a club or spindle. In the cabbage such attacks on the roots cause undeveloped heads or a failure to head at all, followed often by decline in vigor or by death. It is an important disease, affecting an estimated 10% of the total cultured area worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Komatsuna</span> Variety of leaf vegetable

Komatsuna or Japanese mustard spinach is a leaf vegetable. It is a variety of Brassica rapa, the plant species that yields the turnip, mizuna, napa cabbage, and rapini. It is grown commercially in Japan and Taiwan. It is a versatile vegetable that is cooked and eaten in many ways. The plant is also used for fodder in some Asian countries.

<i>Hyaloperonospora brassicae</i> Species of single-celled organism

Hyaloperonospora brassicae, in the family Peronosporaceae, is a plant pathogen. It causes downy mildew of species of Brassica, Raphanus, Sinapis and probably other genera within the Brassicaceae. In the past, the cause of downy mildew in any plant in the family Brassicaceae was considered to be a single species Peronospora parasitica. However, this has recently been shown to be a complex of species with narrower host ranges, now classified in the genus Hyaloperonospora, for example Hyaloperonospora parasitica on the weed Capsella bursa-pastoris. From the perspective of plant pathology, Hyaloperonospora brassicae is now the name of the most important pathogen in this complex, attacking the major agricultural and horticultural Brassica species. Other significant Brassicaceous hosts are attacked by different species in the complex, e.g. horseradish by Hyaloperonospora cochleariae, wallflower by Hyaloperonospora cheiranthi.

<i>Alternaria brassicae</i> Species of fungus

Alternaria brassicae is a plant pathogen able to infect most Brassica species including important crops such as broccoli, cabbage and oil seed rape. It causes damping off if infection occurs in younger plants and less severe leaf spot symptoms on infections of older plants.

Black rot, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc), is considered the most important and most destructive disease of crucifers, infecting all cultivated varieties of brassicas worldwide. This disease was first described by botanist and entomologist Harrison Garman in Lexington, Kentucky, US in 1889. Since then, it has been found in nearly every country in which vegetable brassicas are commercially cultivated.

Alternaria black spot of canola or grey leaf spot is an ascomycete fungal disease caused by a group of pathogens including: Alternaria brassicae, A. alternata and A. raphani. This pathogen is characterized by dark, sunken lesions of various size on all parts of the plant, including the leaves, stem, and pods. Its primary economic host is canola. In its early stages it only affects the plants slightly by reducing photosynthesis, however as the plant matures it can cause damage to the seeds and more, reducing oil yield as well.

<i>Alternaria brassicicola</i> Species of fungus

Alternaria brassicicola is a fungal necrotrophic plant pathogen that causes black spot disease on a wide range of hosts, particularly in the genus of Brassica, including a number of economically important crops such as cabbage, Chinese cabbage, cauliflower, oilseeds, broccoli and canola. Although mainly known as a significant plant pathogen, it also contributes to various respiratory allergic conditions such as asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis. Despite the presence of mating genes, no sexual reproductive stage has been reported for this fungus. In terms of geography, it is most likely to be found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, but also in places with high rain and humidity such as Poland. It has also been found in Taiwan and Israel. Its main mode of propagation is vegetative. The resulting conidia reside in the soil, air and water. These spores are extremely resilient and can overwinter on crop debris and overwintering herbaceous plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternaria leaf spot</span> Fungal plant disease

Alternaria leaf spot or Alternaria leaf blight are a group of fungal diseases in plants, that have a variety of hosts. The diseases infects common garden plants, such as cabbage, and are caused by several closely related species of fungi. Some of these fungal species target specific plants, while others have been known to target plant families. One commercially relevant plant genus that can be affected by Alternaria Leaf Spot is Brassica, as the cosmetic issues caused by symptomatic lesions can lead to rejection of crops by distributors and buyers. When certain crops such as cauliflower and broccoli are infected, the heads deteriorate and there is a complete loss of marketability. Secondary soft-rotting organisms can infect stored cabbage that has been affected by Alternaria Leaf Spot by entering through symptomatic lesions. Alternaria Leaf Spot diseases that affect Brassica species are caused by the pathogens Alternaria brassicae and Alternaria brassicicola.

References

  1. ↑ "Oxford English Dictionary nappa, n.2" . Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  2. ↑ https://ag.purdue.edu/btny/ID56/82_AsianVeg.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  3. ↑ "Chi′nese cab′bage" . Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  4. ↑ "Chinese Cabbage". chinesefood.about.com. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  5. ↑ "Wombok". 7 April 2022.
  6. ↑ "黃芽白 (Wong4 ngaa4 baak6 | ) : Napa cabbage; chinese cabbage - CantoDict".
  7. ↑ Tan, Terry. A Little Chinese Cookbook. Chronicle Books. p. 51.
  8. ↑ Afable, Patricia O. (2004). Japanese pioneers in the northern Philippine highlands: a centennial tribute, 1903-2003. Filipino-Japanese Foundation of Northern Luzon, Inc. p. 116. ISBN   978-971-92973-0-7.
  9. ↑ Toxopeus, H & Baas, J (2004) Brassica rapa L.. - In: Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen. - p.146-151.
  10. ↑ Growing the Peking cabbage (in Russian)
  11. 1 2 Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Crop Plants (2011) N. Ramchiary, S. Park, X. P. Lim: Classical Breeding and Genetic Analysis of Vegetable Brassicas. Book 2. Clemson University, USA
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sadowski, J., & Kole, C. (2011). Genetics, genomics and breeding of vegetable brassicas. Enfield: Science Publishers.
  13. ↑ W. Franke (1976) Nutzpflanzenkunde. - Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany
  14. ↑ Feller, C., Bleiholder, H., Buhr, L., Hack, H., Hess, M., Klose, R., et al. (1995). BBCH-Codierung der phänologischen Entwicklungsstadien von Blattgemüse (kopfbildend). In U. Meier, Entwicklungsstadien mono- und dikotyler Pflanzen: BBCH Monografie (S. 120). Biologische Bundesanstalt für Land und Forstwirtschaft.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Buschbaum, H., & Heinen, B. (1978). Chinakohl. Bonn: Rheinischer Landwirtschafts-Verlag.
  16. ↑ Nerlich, K., Pfennig, J., Kleemann, G., Feike, T., Graeff, S., Claupein, W., et al. (2009). Beschreibung von Wachstum und Entwicklung bei Chinakohl (Brassica rapa L. var. pekinensis) in Abhängigkeit von Temperatur und Tageslänge - Basisdaten zur Modellierung mit DSSAT. 45. Gartenbauwissenschaftliche Tagung, (S. 158). Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin.
  17. ↑ "Napa cabbage nutrition facts" . Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  18. ↑ Cartea, M.E. (2011). Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Crop Plants. Clemson University.
  19. 1 2 3 Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Crop Plants (2011) Clemson University, USA Cartea M. E., Lema M., Francisco M, Velasco P.
  20. 1 2 Lee, Cecilia Hae-Jin (22 May 2012). Frommer's South Korea. John Wiley & Sons. p. 326. ISBN   978-1-118-33363-1.
  21. ↑ Klein, Donna (4 December 2012). The Chinese Vegan Kitchen: More Than 225 Meat-free, Egg-free, Dairy-free Dishes from the Culinary Regions of China. Penguin Group US. p. 30. ISBN   978-1-101-61361-0.
  22. ↑ Yang X, Hu W, Xiu Z, Jiang A, Yang X, Saren G, Ji Y, Guan Y, Feng K (17 July 2020). "Effect of salt concentration on microbial communities, physicochemical properties and metabolite profile during spontaneous fermentation of Chinese northeast sauerkraut". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 129 (6): 1458–1471. doi:10.1111/jam.14786. PMC   6723656 . PMID   32677269.
  23. ↑ Vongerichten, Marja (2 August 2011). The Kimchi Chronicles: Korean Cooking for an American Kitchen. Rodale. pp. 37–42. ISBN   978-1-60961-128-6.
  24. ↑ Michael Todt (1989) Untersuchungen zur Mikroflora des lagernden Chinakohls (Brassica pekinensis Rupr.). Dissertation, University Kiel, Germany
  25. ↑ Deutschen Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie, 5. Auflage, (1994) Souci/Fachmann/Kraut.
  26. 1 2 3 Cook, W. P., & Smith, P. (February 1996). Oriental Cabbage Production. Hort. Leaflet 68, S. 1-4
  27. 1 2 3 Baggaley, A., Barter, G., Caldon, H., Rosenfeld, R. L., Ruch, P., Vowles, D., et al. (2011). RHS Good fruit & veg guide. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Rimmer, R. S., Shattuck, V. I., & Buchwaldt, L. (2007). Compendium of Brassica Diseases. St. Paul: American Phytopathological Society.
  29. ↑ Ackermann, I., Funk, M., Hintze, C., Joachimi, A., Potzkai, G., Rieger, W., et al. (1993). Feldgemüsebau : Buschbohnen, Chinakohl, Dicke Bohnen, Erbsen, Einlegegurken, Grünkohl, Knollensellerie, Kohlrabi, Kopfkohl, Kopfsalat, Möhren, Porree, Rote Beete, Schälgurken, Spargel, Spinat, Zwiebeln . Münster-Hiltrup: Landwirtschaftsverlag.
  30. ↑ "Brassica rapa (Pekinensis Group) 'Yuki'". Royal Horticultural Society. November 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  31. ↑ Kirk, W. D. (1992). Insects on cabbages and oilseed rape. Richmond Publishing.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.