Brassica oleracea

Last updated

Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea0.jpg
Wild cabbage plants
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
Species:
B. oleracea
Binomial name
Brassica oleracea
L.
Synonyms [2]
List
    • Brassica alboglabraL.H.Bailey
    • Brassica arboreaSteud.
    • Brassica bullataPasq.
    • Brassica capitalaDC. ex H.Lév.
    • Brassica caulorapa(DC.) Pasq.
    • Brassica cephalaDC. ex H.Lév.
    • Brassica fimbriataSteud.
    • Brassica gemmiferaH.Lév.
    • Brassica laciniataSteud.
    • Brassica millecapitataH.Lév.
    • Brassica oleracea subsp. acephala(DC.) Metzg.
    • Brassica oleracea var. capitataL.
    • Brassica oleracea subsp. caulorapa(DC.) Metzg.
    • Brassica oleracea var. costataDC.
    • Brassica oleracea subsp. fruticosaMetzg.
    • Brassica oleracea var. gemmiferaDC.
    • Brassica oleracea convar. gemmifera(DC.) Gladis ex Diederichsen
    • Brassica oleracea var. gongylodesL.
    • Brassica oleracea var. kashmirianaNaqshi & Javeid
    • Brassica oleracea var. laciniataL.
    • Brassica oleracea var. palmifoliaDC.
    • Brassica oleracea var. rubraL.
    • Brassica oleracea var. sabaudaL.
    • Brassica oleracea var. sabellicaL.
    • Brassica oleracea var. viridisL.
    • Brassica quercifoliaDC. ex H.Lév.
    • Brassica rubraSteud.
    • Brassica suttonianaH.Lév.
    • Brassica sylvestris(L.) Mill.
    • Crucifera brassicaE.H.L.Krause
    • Napus oleracea(L.) K.F.Schimp. & Spenn.
    • Rapa rotundaMill.
    • Raphanus brassica-officinalisCrantz

Brassica oleracea is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan.

Contents

Its uncultivated form, wild cabbage, native to coastal southern and western Europe, is a hardy plant with high tolerance for salt and lime. However, its intolerance of competition from other plants typically restricts its natural occurrence to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel. [3] Wild B. oleracea is a tall biennial plant that forms a stout rosette of large leaves in the first year. The leaves are fleshier and thicker than other Brassica species—an adaptation that helps it store water and nutrients in its difficult growing environment. In its second year, it uses the stored nutrients to produce a flower spike 1 to 2 metres (3–7 ft) tall with numerous yellow flowers.

A 2021 study suggested that the Eastern Mediterranean Brassica cretica was the origin of domesticated B. oleracea. [4] Genetic analysis of nine wild populations on the French Atlantic coast indicated their common feral origin, deriving from domesticated plants escaped from fields and gardens. [5]

Taxonomy

Origins

According to the Triangle of U theory, B. oleracea is very closely related to five other species of the genus Brassica . [6] A 2021 study suggested that Brassica cretica , native to the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly Greece and the Aegean Islands, was the closest living relative of cultivated B. oleracea, thus supporting the view that its cultivation originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region, with later admixture from other Brassica species. [4]

The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped by developmental form into several major cultivar groups, of which the Acephala ("non-heading") group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance. For a list of these groups, see the table of cultivars.

Etymology

'Brassica' was Pliny the Elder's name for several cabbage-like plants. [7]

Its specific epithet oleracea means "vegetable/herbal" in Latin and is a form of holeraceus (oleraceus). [8] [9]

Cultivation and uses

Head of B. oleracea Botrytis group (cauliflower) growing Growing Cauliflower.jpg
Head of B. oleracea Botrytis group (cauliflower) growing

B. oleracea has become established as an important human food crop plant, used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collards, and kale, some of which are hardly recognizable as being members of the same genus, let alone species. [10] The historical genus of Crucifera, meaning "cross-bearing" in reference to the four-petaled flowers, may be the only unifying feature beyond taste.

Researchers believe it has been cultivated for several thousand years, but its history as a domesticated plant is not clear before Greek and Roman times, when it was a well-established garden vegetable. Theophrastus mentions three kinds of rhaphanos (ῤάφανος): [11] a curly-leaved, a smooth-leaved, and a wild-type. [12] He reports the antipathy of the cabbage and the grape vine, for the ancients believed cabbages grown near grapes would impart their flavour to the wine. [13]

Couve Galega (ex. Brassica oleracea var. acephala DC.) for the Portuguese Caldo verde Couve-galega.JPG
Couve Galega (ex. Brassica oleracea var. acephala DC.) for the Portuguese Caldo verde
Jersey cabbage can be cultivated to grow quite large, especially in frost-free climates. Tree cabbage.jpg
Jersey cabbage can be cultivated to grow quite large, especially in frost-free climates.
Batons d'chour - Jersey walking sticks made from the Jersey cabbage. Batons d'chour.jpg
Bâtons d'chour - Jersey walking sticks made from the Jersey cabbage.

History

Market Scene, painting by Pieter Aertsen (1569) Frukt och grosakshandel. Pieter Aertsen - Hallwylska museet - 86399.tif
Market Scene, painting by Pieter Aertsen (1569)

Through artificial selection for various phenotype traits, the emergence of variations of the plant with drastic differences in looks occurred over centuries. Preference for leaves, terminal bud, lateral bud, stem, and inflorescence resulted in selection of varieties of wild cabbage into the many forms known today.

Impact of preference

  • The preference for the eating of the leaves led to the selection of plants with larger leaves being harvested and their seeds planted for the next growth. Around the fifth century BC, the formation of what is now known as kale had developed. [14]
  • Preference led to further artificial selection of kale plants with more tightly bunched leaves, or terminal bud. Somewhere around the first century AD emerged the phenotype variation of B. oleracea known as cabbage.
  • Phenotype selection preferences in Germany resulted in a new variation from the kale cultivar. By selecting for fatter stems, the variant plant known as kohlrabi emerged around the first century AD.
  • European preference emerged for eating immature buds, selection for inflorescence. Early records in 15th century AD, indicate that early cauliflower and broccoli heading types were found throughout southern Italy and Sicily, although these types may not have been resolved into distinct cultivars until about 100 years later. [15] [10] [16] [17]
  • Further selection in Belgium in lateral bud led to Brussels sprouts in the 18th century.

Cultivars

According to the Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew Species Profiles) [18] the species has eight cultivar groups. Each cultivar group has many varieties, like 'Lacinato' kale or 'Belstar' broccoli.

A 2024 study compares 704 B. oleracea sequences and establishes a phylogenetic tree of cultivars. The authors find large-scale changes in gene expression and gene presence. Some genes are putatively linked to certain traits such as arrested inflorescence (typical of cauliflower and broccoli). [20]

CultivarImage Cultivar group (Kew)Name (variety, form)
Wild cabbage Brassica oleracea wild.jpg N/ABrassica oleracea var. oleracea
Cabbage Brassica oleracea2.jpg Capitata Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. alba
Savoy cabbage Savoy Cabbage.jpg Capitata Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. sabauda
Red cabbage Cabbage - Indian Botanic Garden - Howrah 2012-01-29 1733.JPG Capitata Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. rubra
Cone cabbage Brassica oleracea convar. capitata var. alba, spitskool (1).jpg Capitata Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. acuta
Gai lan Gailan.jpg Alboglabra Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra
Collard greens Collard greens in Galicia, Spain.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. viridis
Jersey cabbage Tree cabbage.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. longata
Ornamental kale Ornamental Kale.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. acephala
Kale Boerenkool.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. sabellica
Lacinato kale PalmkohlPflanze.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. palmifolia
Perpetual kale Chou vivace.JPG Acephala Brassica oleracea var. ramosa
Kalette Kalettes stem and indivisual.jpg Hybrid Brassica oleracea var. viridis x gemmifera
Marrow cabbage Blauer stangenkohl.jpg Acephala Brassica oleracea var. medullosa
Tronchuda kale Chou au Parc floral.JPG Tronchuda Brassica oleracea var. costata
Brussels sprout Brussels sprouts (4103982312) (2).jpg Gemmifera Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera
Kohlrabi Kalarepa (Poznan).jpg Gongylodes Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes
Broccoli Broccoli2.jpg Botrytis [lower-alpha 1] Brassica oleracea var. italica
Cauliflower Cauliflower 2 bd-c.jpg Botrytis Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Caulini Caulini.jpg Botrytis Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Romanesco broccoli Romanesco in Europe.jpg Botrytis Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Broccoli di Torbole Broccolo torbole 1.jpg Botrytis Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Broccoflower Broccoflower.JPG Hybrid (within Botrytis)Brassica oleracea var. botrytis × italica
Broccolini Broccolini.jpg Hybrid Brassica oleracea var. italica × alboglabra

Uses

It is rich in essential nutrients, including vitamin C. A diet rich in cruciferous vegetables (e.g., cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower) is linked to a reduced risk of several human cancers. [21] [22]

Human genetics in relation to taste

The TAS2R38 gene encodes a G protein-coupled receptor that functions as a taste receptor, mediated by ligands such as PROP and phenylthiocarbamide that bind to the receptor and initiate signaling that confers various degrees of taste perception. Vegetables in the brassica family, such as collard greens, kale, broccoli, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts, contain glucosinolates and isothiocyanates, which resemble PROP, and therefore much of the perceived "bitterness" of these vegetables is mediated through TAS2R38.[ dubious – discuss ] Bitter taste receptors in the TS2R family are also found in gut mucosal and pancreatic cells in humans and rodents. These receptors influence release of hormones involved in appetite regulation, such as peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1, and therefore may influence caloric intake and the development of obesity. Thus, bitter taste perception may affect dietary behaviors by influencing both taste preferences and metabolic hormonal regulation. [23]

Three variants in the TAS2R38 gene – rs713598, rs1726866, and rs10246939 – are in high linkage disequilibrium in most populations and result in amino acid coding changes that lead to a range of bitter taste perception phenotypes. The PAV haplotype is dominant; therefore, individuals with at least one copy of the PAV allele perceive molecules in vegetables that resemble PROP as tasting bitter, and consequently may develop an aversion to bitter vegetables. In contrast, individuals with two AVI haplotypes are bitter non-tasters. PAV and AVI haplotypes are the most common, though other haplotypes exist that confer intermediate bitter taste sensitivity (AAI, AAV, AVV, and PVI). This taste aversion may apply to vegetables in general. [23] [24]

Notes

  1. 1 2 Technically, broccoli is an inflorescence, and so it belongs to the Botrytis group. However, because its subspecies name is Brassica oleracea var. italica, some many put it in the Italica group, including The North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kohlrabi</span> Biennial cultivar of wild cabbage

Kohlrabi, also called German turnip or turnip cabbage, is a biennial vegetable, a low, stout cultivar of wild cabbage. It is a cultivar of the same species as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, and gai lan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cabbage</span> Leafy vegetable in the flowering plant family Brassicaceae

Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage, and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower ; Brussels sprouts ; and Savoy cabbage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broccoli</span> Edible green plant in the cabbage family

Broccoli is an edible green plant in the cabbage family whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is classified in the Italica cultivar group of the species Brassica oleracea. Broccoli has large flower heads, or florets, usually dark green, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick stalk which is usually light green. The mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli resembles cauliflower, which is a different but closely related cultivar group of the same Brassica species.

<i>Brassica</i> Genus of flowering plants in the cabbage family Brassicaceae

Brassica is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family (Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, mustard plants, or simply brassicas. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, denoting the stem or stalk of a plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cauliflower</span> Vegetable in the species Brassica oleracea

Cauliflower is one of several vegetables cultivated from the species Brassica oleracea in the genus Brassica, which is in the Brassicaceae family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broccoflower</span> Edible plant

Broccoflower is either of two edible plants of the species Brassica oleracea with light green heads. The edible portion is the immature flower head (inflorescence) of the plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brussels sprout</span> Vegetable

The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages, grown for its edible buds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collard (plant)</span> Variety of plant

Collard is a group of loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables including cabbage and broccoli. Part of the Acephala (kale) cultivar group, it is also classified as the variety B. oleracea var. viridis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kale</span> Form of cabbage with green or purple leaves

Kale, also called leaf cabbage, belongs to a group of cabbage cultivars primarily grown for their edible leaves. It has also been used as an ornamental plant.

Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), also known as phenylthiourea (PTU), is an organosulfur thiourea containing a phenyl ring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rapini</span> Species of plant

Rapini or broccoli rabe is a green cruciferous vegetable, with the leaves, buds, and stems all being edible; the buds somewhat resemble broccoli, but do not form a large head. Rapini is known for its bitter taste, and is particularly associated with Mediterranean cuisine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gai lan</span> Leaf vegetable

Gai lan, kai-lan, Chinese broccoli, or Chinese kale is a leafy vegetable with thick, flat, glossy blue-green leaves with thick stems, and florets similar to broccoli. A Brassica oleracea cultivar, gai lan is in the group alboglabra. When gone to flower, its white blossoms resemble that of its cousin Matthiola incana or hoary stock. The flavor is very similar to that of broccoli, but noticeably stronger and slightly more bitter.

A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is of far greater intensity than the average person, having an elevated taste response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clubroot</span> Common fungal disease of plants of the family Brassicaceae

Clubroot is a common disease of cabbages, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, radishes, turnips, stocks, wallflowers and other plants of the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). It is caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, which was once considered a slime mold but is now put in the group Phytomyxea. It is the first phytomyxean for which the genome has been sequenced. It has as many as thirteen races. Gall formation or distortion takes place on latent roots and gives the shape of a club or spindle. In the cabbage such attacks on the roots cause undeveloped heads or a failure to head at all, followed often by decline in vigor or by death. It is an important disease, affecting an estimated 10% of the total cultured area worldwide.

Spring greens are a cultivar of Brassica oleracea in the cultivar acephala group, similar to kale, in which the central leaves do not form a head or form only a very loose one. It is considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most other domesticated forms, and is grown primarily in northern Europe, where its tolerance of cold winters is valued for an early spring supply of edible leaves. The cultivar group acephala also includes curly kale and collard greens, which are extremely similar genetically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cruciferous vegetables</span> Vegetables of the family Brassicaceae

Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, mustard plant and similar green leaf vegetables. The family takes its alternative name from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acephala group</span> Type of Brassica plants

The acephala group refers to any type of Brassica which grows without the central 'head' typical of many varieties of cabbage. These are included within the species Brassica oleracea, such as kale. The name literally means "without a head" in contrast to those varieties known as capitata or "with a head". This group includes a number of species, both wild and cultivated, many of which are grown for their edible leaves and flowers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanesco broccoli</span> Vegetable, member of the cabbage family

Romanesco broccoli is in fact a cultivar of the cauliflower, not a broccoli. It is an edible flower bud of the species Brassica oleracea, which also includes regular broccoli and cauliflower. It is chartreuse in color, and has a form naturally approximating a fractal. Romanesco has a nutty flavor and a firmer texture than cauliflower and broccoli when cooked.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TAS2R38</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Taste receptor 2 member 38 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TAS2R38 gene. TAS2R38 is a bitter taste receptor; varying genotypes of TAS2R38 influence the ability to taste both 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). Though it has often been proposed that varying taste receptor genotypes could influence tasting ability, TAS2R38 is one of the few taste receptors shown to have this function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PTC tasting</span>

PTC tasting is a classic genetic marker in human population genetics investigations.

References

  1. ↑ Holubec, V., Uzundzhalieva, K., Vörösváry, G., Donnini, D., Bulińska, Z. & Strajeru, S. 2011. Brassica oleracea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T170110A6717557. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T170110A6717557.en. Downloaded on 02 July 2021.
  2. ↑ "Brassica oleracea L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
  3. ↑ Snogerup, Sven; Gustafsson, Mats; Bothmer, Roland Von (1990-01-01). "Brassica sect. Brassica (Brassicaceae) I. Taxonomy and Variation". Willdenowia . 19 (2): 271–365. JSTOR   3996645.
  4. 1 2 Mabry, Makenzie E; Turner-Hissong, Sarah D; Gallagher, Evan Y; McAlvay, Alex C; An, Hong; Edger, Patrick P; Moore, Jonathan D; Pink, David A C; Teakle, Graham R; Stevens, Chris J; Barker, Guy; Labate, Joanne; Fuller, Dorian Q; Allaby, Robin G; Beissinger, Timothy; Decker, Jared E; Gore, Michael A & Pires, J Chris (2021). "The Evolutionary History of Wild, Domesticated, and Feral Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)". Molecular Biology and Evolution . 38 (10): 4419–4434. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msab183 . PMC   8476135 . PMID   34157722.
  5. ↑ Maggioni, Lorenzo; von Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Härnström Aloisi, Karolina (2020). "Survey and genetic diversity of wild Brassica oleracea L. Germplasm on the Atlantic coast of France". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution . 67 (7): 1853–1866. doi:10.1007/s10722-020-00945-0. hdl: 10568/121870 . S2CID   218772995.
  6. ↑ Dixon, G.R. (2007). Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers. Wallingford: CABI. ISBN   978-0-85199-395-9.
  7. ↑ Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521866453 (hardback), ISBN   9780521685535 (paperback). pp 76
  8. ↑ Parker, Peter (2018). A Little Book of Latin for Gardeners. Little Brown Book Group. p. 328. ISBN   978-1-4087-0615-2. oleraceus, holeraceus = relating to vegetables or kitchen garden
  9. ↑ Whitney, William Dwight (1899). The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia. Century Co. p. 2856. L.holeraceus, prop.oleraceus, herb-like, holus, prop.olus (oler-), herbs, vegetables
  10. 1 2 Stansell, Zachary; Hyma, Katie; Fresnedo-Ramírez, Jonathan; Sun, Qi; Mitchell, Sharon; Björkman, Thomas; Hua, Jian (2018-07-01). "Genotyping-by-sequencing of Brassica oleracea vegetables reveals unique phylogenetic patterns, population structure and domestication footprints". Horticulture Research . 5 (1): 38. doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0040-3. ISSN   2052-7276. PMC   6026498 . PMID   29977574. S2CID   49552482.
  11. ↑ Compare Theophrastus; raphanis (ραφανίς), "radish", also a Brassica.
  12. ↑ Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin. Oxford: Oxford University Press (OUP)). p. 199. ISBN   978-0199549061.
  13. ↑ Theophrastus, Enquiry into Plants, IV.6.16; Deipnosophistae , I, noting the effects of cabbages on wine and wine-drinkers, also quotes Apollodorus of Carystus: "If they think that our calling it a rhaphanos, while you foreigners call it a krambê, makes any difference to us women!" (on-line English text).
  14. ↑ "Vegetables - University of Saskatchewan". agbio.usask.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-03-29. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
  15. ↑ Maggioni, Lorenzo; von Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Branca, Ferdinando (2010-06-01). "Origin and Domestication of Cole Crops (Brassica oleracea L.): Linguistic and Literary Considerations1". Economic Botany . 64 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1007/s12231-010-9115-2. hdl: 10568/121874 . ISSN   1874-9364. S2CID   2771884.
  16. ↑ Maggioni, Lorenzo (June 2015). "Domestication of Brassica oleracea L." pub.epsilon.slu.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 2020-11-29.
  17. ↑ Stansell, Zachary; Björkman, Thomas (2020-10-01). "From landrace to modern hybrid broccoli: the genomic and morphological domestication syndrome within a diverse B. oleracea collection". Horticulture Research . 7 (1): 159. doi:10.1038/s41438-020-00375-0. ISSN   2052-7276. PMC   7528014 . PMID   33082966.
  18. ↑ "Brassica oleracea (wild cabbage)". kew.org. Royal Botanic Gardens. Accessed March 23, 2023 – see "Descriptions" subsection "According to Kew Species Profiles"
  19. ↑ "Brassica oleracea groups". ces.ncsu.edu. North Carolina State University. Accessed March 23, 2023
  20. ↑ Li, Xing; Wang, Yong; Cai, Chengcheng; Ji, Jialei; Han, Fengqing; Zhang, Lei; Chen, Shumin; Zhang, Lingkui; Yang, Yinqing; Tang, Qi; Bucher, Johan; Wang, Xuelin; Yang, Limei; Zhuang, Mu; Zhang, Kang; Lv, Honghao; Bonnema, Guusje; Zhang, Yangyong; Cheng, Feng (13 February 2024). "Large-scale gene expression alterations introduced by structural variation drive morphotype diversification in Brassica oleracea". Nature Genetics. doi: 10.1038/s41588-024-01655-4 . PMC   10937405 .
  21. ↑ Verhoeven, D. T.; Goldbohm, R. A.; van Poppel, G.; Verhagen, H.; van den Brandt, P. A. (1996-09-01). "Epidemiological studies on brassica vegetables and cancer risk". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention . 5 (9): 733–748. ISSN   1055-9965. PMID   8877066.
  22. ↑ Higdon, Jane V.; Delage, Barbara; Williams, David E.; Dashwood, Roderick H. (2007-03-01). "Cruciferous vegetables and human cancer risk: epidemiologic evidence and mechanistic basis". Pharmacological Research . 55 (3): 224–236. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.009. ISSN   1043-6618. PMC   2737735 . PMID   17317210.
  23. 1 2 Calancie, Larissa; Keyserling, Thomas C.; Smith-Taillie, Lindsey; Robasky, Kimberly; Patterson, Cam; Ammerman, Alice S.; Schisler, Jonathan C. (2018). "TAS2R38 predisposition to bitter taste associated with differential changes in vegetable intake in response to a community-based dietary intervention". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics . 8 (6): 2107–2119. doi:10.1534/g3.118.300547. PMC   5982837 . PMID   29686110. CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from the preprint version, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  24. ↑ Behrens, Maik; Gunn, Howard; Ramos, Purita (2013). "Genetic, Functional, and Phenotypic Diversity in TAS2R38-Mediated Bitter Taste Perception". Chemical Senses . 38 (6): 475–84. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjt016 . PMID   23632915.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.