Off-road vehicle

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Mercedes-Benz Unimog in the Dunes of Erg Chebbi in Morocco. The vehicle's portal gear axles provide high ground clearance. S404-300TDI-erg-chebbi.jpg
Mercedes-Benz Unimog in the Dunes of Erg Chebbi in Morocco. The vehicle's portal gear axles provide high ground clearance.

An off-road vehicle (ORV), sometimes referred to as an off-highway vehicle (OHV), overland vehicle, or adventure vehicle, is any vehicle designed to drive on non-paved surfaces, [1] such as trails and forest roads, that have rough, uneven, and low-traction surfaces. Off-road vehicles have been popularized through competitive off-road events, such as the annual Dakar Rally, [2] which challenges vehicles to navigate terrain across various countries.

Contents

History

Nicholas II's Packard Twin-6 with Kegresse track, 1917 Kegresse tsar17.jpg
Nicholas II's Packard Twin-6 with Kégresse track, 1917

One of the first modified off-road vehicles was the Kégresse track, a conversion undertaken first by Adolphe Kégresse, who designed the original while working for Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, between 1906 and 1916. [3] The system uses a caterpillar track with a flexible belt, rather than interlocking metal segments. It can be fitted to a conventional car or truck to turn it into a half-track, suitable for use over rough or soft ground.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned to his native France where the system was used on Citroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road and military vehicles. The Citroën company sponsored several overland expeditions with vehicles crossing North Africa and Central Asia.

A huge wheeled vehicle designed from 1937 to 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter called Antarctic Snow Cruiser, was intended to facilitate transport in Antarctica. While having several innovative features, it generally failed to operate as hoped under difficult conditions and was eventually abandoned in Antarctica.

Early off-road vehicles, such as the U.S. Jeep Wagoneer and Ford Bronco, the British Range Rover, and the station wagon-bodied Japanese Toyota Land Cruiser, Nissan Patrol, and Suzuki Lj's series were all had bodies similar to those of a station wagon, on a body comparable to that of a light truck, with four-wheel-drive drivetrains. Later, during the 1990s, as off-road vehicles became more popular, more companies started to produce their own line of what became known as Sport Utility Vehicles. [4] Around this time, manufacturers began to add more features to allow off-road vehicles to compete in the consumer market with regular vehicles. Over time, this evolved into what we call the SUV today. It also evolved into the newer crossover vehicle, where utility and off-road capability were sacrificed for better on-road handling and luxury.

Technical details

Swedish Hagglunds Bv206 with wide rubber tracks US 5055th Range Squadron M973 SUSV.jpg
Swedish Hägglunds Bv206 with wide rubber tracks

To be able to drive off the pavement, off-road vehicles need several characteristics: They need to have a low ground pressure, so as not to sink into soft ground, they need a lot of ground clearance, to not get stuck on obstacles, and they need to keep their wheels or tracks on the ground, so as not to lose traction. Wheeled vehicles accomplish this by having a suitable balance of large or additional tires, combined with tall and flexible suspension. Tracked vehicles accomplish this by having wide tracks and flexible suspension on the road wheels.

Russian GAZ-34039 [ru] GT-SM at Vankorskoe oilfield.jpg
Russian GAZ-34039  [ ru ]

The choice of wheels versus tracks is one of cost and suitability. A tracked drive-train is more expensive to produce and maintain. Wheeled drive-trains are cheaper and give a higher top speed. A tracked drive-train has greater off-road capability.

Tires play a significant role for any off-road vehicle equipped with wheels, ensuring optimal traction to keep it moving. The off-road tire tread types vary depending on the terrain type. The most common types of off-road tires are A/T (stands for "All Terrain") and M/T (stands for "Mud Terrain"). While the A/T tires perform excellently on the sand, they are barely usable in the mud. There are also unique Sand Blaster and Mud bogging tires used for the most challenging terrains such as dirt, sand, and even water to maintain traction at extreme angles and high speeds (off-road motorsport). [5]

Most off-road vehicles are fitted with low gearing. This allows the operator to optimise the engine's available power while moving slowly through challenging terrain. An internal combustion engine coupled to a standard gearbox often has an output speed too high. The vehicle often has one of two things, either a very low ("granny") first gear (like the all-wheel drive Volkswagen Transporter versions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, called a reduction drive. Some vehicles, like the Bv206 in the picture on the right, also have torque converters to reduce the gearing. [6]

Criticism

Safety

SUVs are built with higher ground clearance, for off-road use, and thus have a higher center of gravity, [7] therefore increasing the risk of rollover. When an SUV turns, the vehicle's mass resists the turn. This carries the SUV's weight forward, thus allowing the traction from the tires to create a lateral centripetal force as the vehicle continues through the turn. The conflict between the top weight of the SUV's desire to go straight and the friction of the tires on the road causes the bottom of the vehicle to move away and out from under the SUV during a turn.

SUVs are more likely to be in rollover accidents than passenger cars. According to a study conducted in the United States, SUVs have twice the fatality rate of passenger cars and have nearly triple the fatality rate in rollover accidents. [8]

In the United States, light trucks (including SUVs) represent 36 percent of all registered vehicles. They are involved in about half of the fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars, and 80 percent of these fatalities are to occupants of passenger cars. [8]

Environment

In the United States, the number of ORV users since 1972 has climbed sevenfold—from five million to 36 million in 2000. [9] Government policies that protect wilderness but also allow recreational ORVs, have been the subject of some debate within the United States and other countries. [10]

All trail and off-trail activities impact natural vegetation and wildlife, which can lead to erosion, invasive species, habitat loss, and ultimately, species loss [11] [12] [13] decreasing an ecosystem's ability to maintain homeostasis. [14] ORVs cause greater stress to the environment than foot traffic alone, and ORV operators who attempt to test their vehicles against natural obstacles can do significantly more damage than those who follow legal trails. [15] [16] Illegal use of off-road vehicles has been identified as a serious land management problem ranked with dumping garbage and other forms of vandalism. [17] Many user organisations, such as Tread Lightly! and the Sierra Club, publish and encourage appropriate trail ethics. [18]

ORVs have also been criticised for producing more pollution in areas that might normally have none. In addition to noise pollution that can cause hearing impairment and stress in wildlife, [19] according to the U.S. Forest Service, old-style two-stroke engines (no longer a component of new off-road vehicles, although some are still in use) "emit about 20 to 33 percent of the consumed fuel through the exhaust" and "discharge from two-stroke snowmobile engines can lead to indirect pollutant deposition into the top layer of snow and subsequently into the associated surface and groundwater." [20] [21] In 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency adopted emissions standards for all-terrain vehicles that "when fully implemented in 2012... are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons of air pollution each year—the equivalent of removing the pollution from more than 32 million cars every year." [22] [23]

Civilian use

Common[ where? ] commercial vehicles used for off-roading include four-wheel-drive pickup trucks and SUVs such as the Ford F-Series, Jeep Wrangler, and Toyota Land Cruiser, among others. Typically, owners will perform additional modifications to the wheels, tires, suspension, and body to improve their performance off-road. Several decommissioned military vehicles have also been used by civilians, including the Jeep CJ and the AM General Hummer. Some, like the early Land Rovers, were adapted to military use from civilian specifications. Specialised off-road vehicles include Utility terrain vehicles (UTVs), All-terrain vehicles (ATVs), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers, and sandrails.

All-terrain vehicle

This section is an excerpt from All-terrain vehicle.[ edit ]
The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, South Africa, parts of Canada, India, and the United States. They are used extensively in agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint. Four wheeler.jpg
The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, South Africa, parts of Canada, India, and the United States. They are used extensively in agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint.

An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV), [24] a quad bike or quad (if it has four wheels), as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars, similar to a motorcycle. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. It is street-legal in some countries, but not in most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, and Canada.

By the current ANSI definition, ATVs are intended for use by a single operator, but some ATVs, referred to as tandem ATVs, have been developed for use by the driver and one passenger. [25]

The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six or eight wheel (tracked) models exist and existed historically [26] for specialized applications. Multiple-user analogues with side-by-side seating are called utility terrain vehicles (UTVs) or side-by-sides to distinguish the classes of vehicle. Both classes tend to have similar powertrain parts. Engine sizes of ATVs for sale in the United States as of 2008 ranged from 49 to 1,000 cc (3.0 to 61  cu in).

Other applications

Military vehicle

The military market for off-road vehicles used to be large, but, since the fall of the Iron Curtain in the 1990s, it has dried up to some extent. The U.S. jeeps, developed during World War II, coined the word many people use for any light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeeps' successor from the mid-1980s was the AM General HMMWV series. The Red Army used the GAZ-61 and GAZ-64 during World War II. The Eastern Bloc used the GAZ-69 and UAZ-469 in similar roles.

Experimental vehicle

Commercial vehicle

Scientific vehicle

Expedition vehicle

Vehicles used as the primary transport in an expedition, not for profit, scientific research or personal use.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SUV</span> Type of automobile

A sport utility vehicle (SUV) is a car classification that combines elements of road-going passenger cars with features from off-road vehicles, such as raised ground clearance and four-wheel drive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">All-terrain vehicle</span> Light off-road vehicle

An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV), a quad bike or quad, as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars, similar to a motorcycle. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. It is street-legal in some countries, but not in most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, and Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Four-wheel drive</span> Type of drivetrain with four driven wheels

A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a transfer case providing an additional output drive shaft and, in many instances, additional gear ranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ford Explorer</span> Range of SUVs manufactured by the Ford Motor Company

The Ford Explorer is a range of SUVs manufactured by Ford Motor Company since the 1991 model year. The first five-door SUV produced by Ford, the Explorer was introduced as a replacement for the three-door Bronco II. As with the Ford Ranger, the model line derives its name from a trim package previously offered on Ford F-Series pickup trucks. As of 2020, the Explorer became the best-selling SUV of all time in the American market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Locking differential</span> Mechanical component which forces two transaxial wheels to spin together

A locking differential is a mechanical component, commonly used in vehicles, designed to overcome the chief limitation of a standard open differential by essentially "locking" both wheels on an axle together as if on a common shaft. This forces both wheels to turn in unison, regardless of the traction available to either wheel individually.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Off-roading</span> Activity of driving on unsurfaced roads or tracks

Off-roading is the act of driving or riding in a vehicle on unpaved surfaces such as sand, dirt, gravel, riverbeds, mud, snow, rocks, or other natural terrain. Off-roading ranges from casual drives with regular vehicles to competitive events with customized vehicles and skilled drivers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ford Bronco</span> American sport-utility vehicle

The Ford Bronco is a model line of SUVs manufactured and marketed by Ford. The first SUV model developed by the company, five generations of the Bronco were sold from the 1966 to 1996 model years. A sixth generation of the model line was introduced for the 2021 model year. The nameplate has been used on other Ford SUVs, namely the 1984–1990 Bronco II compact SUV and the 2021 Bronco Sport compact crossover.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toyota FJ Cruiser</span> Motor vehicle

The Toyota FJ Cruiser is a retro-styled mid-size SUV produced by Toyota between 2006 and 2022. Introduced as a concept car at the January 2003 North American International Auto Show, the FJ Cruiser was approved for production after positive consumer response and debuted at the January 2005 North American International Auto Show in final production form.

A beadlock or bead lock is a mechanical device that secures the bead of a tire to the wheel of a vehicle. Tires and wheels are designed so that when the tire is inflated, the tire pressure pushes the bead of the tire against the inside of the wheel rim so that the tire stays on the wheel and the two rotate together. In situations where tire pressure is insufficient to hold the bead of the tire in place, a beadlock is needed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beam axle</span> Automobile mechanism

A beam axle, rigid axle, or solid axle is a dependent suspension design in which a set of wheels is connected laterally by a single beam or shaft. Beam axles were once commonly used at the rear wheels of a vehicle, but historically, they have also been used as front axles in four-wheel-drive vehicles. In most automobiles, beam axles have been replaced with front (IFS) and rear independent suspensions (IRS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jeep Patriot</span> Motor vehicle

The Jeep Patriot (MK74) is a front-engine five-door compact crossover SUV manufactured and marketed by Jeep, having debuted with the Jeep Compass in April 2006 at the New York Auto Show for the 2007 model year. Both cars, as well as the Dodge Caliber, shared the GS platform, differentiated by their styling and marketing, with the Patriot exclusively offering a four-wheel drive system, marketed as Freedom Drive II.

Jeep uses a variety of four-wheel drive systems on their vehicles. These range from basic part-time systems that require the driver to move a control lever to send power to four wheels, to permanent four-wheel systems that monitor and sense traction needs at all four wheels automatically under all conditions.

Stompers are battery-powered toy cars that use a single AA battery and feature four-wheel drive. They are driven by a single motor that turns both axles. They were the first battery-powered, electric, true 4WD toys. Stompers were created in 1980 by A. Eddy Goldfarb and sold by Schaper Toys. Later, in the United Kingdom, Corgi Toys marketed identical toys in Corgi labeled packaging called Trekkers but made by Schaper. Genuine Stompers were sold by various companies around the globe and were also made by Schaper. There were similar products manufactured by Soma and LJN. Both companies were involved in lawsuits by Goldfarb and Schaper. Settlements were made and the companies continued their line of toys. As of 2019, Goldfarb continues to live and work at his design studio in Southern California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amphibious ATV</span>

An amphibious all-terrain vehicle, or amphibious ATV, is a small, all-wheel drive, all-terrain amphibious vehicle, used for recreation, farm-, hunting, utility or industry tasks, by enthusiasts and professionals worldwide. They are legally off-highway vehicles in many countries, or at least restricted from use on express highways and motorways – their use is generally extra-urban.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout</span> Automotive configuration

In automotive design, an F4, or front-engine, four-wheel drive (4WD) layout places the internal combustion engine at the front of the vehicle and drives all four roadwheels. This layout is typically chosen for better control on many surfaces, and is an important part of rally racing, as well as off-road driving. In terms of racing purposes, whether it be on-road or off-road, can be described as follows,

A team that pursues the Weak LS4WD architecture will minimize the development cost of the front-wheel drive system at the expense of having a larger rear powertrain. The Weak architecture produces a vehicle with a large powersplit between the front and rear powertrains, while the Strong architecture recommends a vehicle with more similar power and torque requirements for the front and rear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Side-by-side (vehicle)</span> Type of off-road vehicle

A side-by-side vehicle, is an off-road vehicle with a minimum of two seats positioned side by side and enclosed within a roll cage structure. They have a minimum of four wheels and are operated by foot controls and a steering wheel. Depending on use and application they can also be called a utility task vehicle, utility terrain vehicle (UTV), recreational off-highway vehicle (ROV), or multipurpose off-highway utility vehicle (MOHUV).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Off-road tire</span> Category of vehicle tire with deep tread

Off-road tires are a category of vehicle tires that use deep tread to provide more traction on unpaved surfaces such as loose dirt, mud, sand, or gravel. Compared to ice or snow tires, they lack studs but contain deeper and wider grooves meant to help the tread sink into mud or gravel surfaces.

Bull Gap is a 60-acre (240,000 m2) hill climb area located in Michigan and links over 115 miles (185 km) of trails for legal off-road vehicle (ORV) use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)</span> American car model

The Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) is the first generation of the Jeep Grand Cherokee sport utility vehicle. Introduced in 1992 for the 1993 model year, development of the ZJ Grand Cherokee started under American Motors Corporation (AMC) as a mid-sized successor to the compact Jeep Cherokee (XJ) intended to replace both it and the aging Jeep Wagoneer (SJ) and was continued after the company was acquired by Chrysler in 1987.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jeep Liberty (KJ)</span> Motor vehicle

The Jeep Liberty (KJ), or Jeep Cherokee (KJ) outside North America, is a compact SUV that was produced by Jeep from 2002 to 2007. Introduced in May 2001 as a replacement for the Cherokee (XJ), the unibody Liberty was priced between the Wrangler and Grand Cherokee. It was the smallest of the 4-door Jeep SUVs up until the car platform based 4-door Compass and Patriot arrived for 2007.

References

Notes

  1. ↑ "Off-Road Vehicle Act". New Brunswick Acts and regulations. Attorney General, New Brunswick, Canada. June 27, 1985. Archived from the original (Web) on 2007-08-18. Retrieved 2007-10-17.
  2. ↑ "Dakar Rally" . Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  3. ↑ MiG-registeret
  4. ↑ "Gone without a Trace: These Are the Forgotten SUVs". Car and Driver. 2018-03-05. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
  5. ↑ "Mud terrain vs all-terrain tires – pros, cons & comparison". offroadium.com. Retrieved 2017-04-17.
  6. ↑ https://pioneerrentals.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Hagglund_BV206D6_en.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  7. ↑ Rodney E. Slater (U.S. Transportation Secretary) (April 9, 1998). "Secretary Slater Proposes New Label; Warning of Rollover Danger for Sport Utility Vehicles". News Release. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original (Web) on 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
  8. 1 2 Jeffrey W. Runge, M.D. (Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) (February 26, 2003). "The Honorable Jeffrey W. Runge, M.D. Administrator National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation United States Senate" (Web). Testimony before the Committee on Commerce, Science, And Transportation, United States Senate. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved 2007-05-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ "Forest Service Rule Revs Up Off-Road Vehicle Fight" (Web). Article. Environment News Service (ENS). July 8, 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  10. ↑ van Wagtendonk, Jan W. (2003). "Role of Science in Sustainable Management of Yosemite Wilderness" (PDF). USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003. USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  11. ↑ Rice, Kathleen C. "National Collection of Imperiled Plants – Pholisma sonorae". Center for Plant Conservation. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
  12. ↑ "Mojave lizard may get protection; off-road vehicles are cited as threat". Los Angeles Times . 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  13. ↑ "Officials seek to protect desert reptile". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  14. ↑ "Technical Notes" (PDF). Conserving Natural and Cultural Resources on Department of Defense Lands; Case Studies from the DoD Conservation Program (Page 13). US Department of Defense. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  15. ↑ Kristine Sowl & Rick Poetter (April 16, 2004). "Impact Analysis of Off-Road Vehicle Use for Subsistence Purposes on Refuge: Lands and Resources Adjacent to the King Cove Access Project" (PDF). Izembek National Wildlife Refuge (page 6). US Fish and wildlife services Alaska. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  16. ↑ "Recreation Management Goals and Strategies" (PDF). Capitol State Forest Recreation and Public Use Plan—Part II (Page 45). Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  17. ↑ "Chapter 11. Field Management Status" (Web). Land Management (11.5.2 Identified Concerns of the Parks Department). Central Pine Barrens Joint Planning and Policy Commission. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  18. ↑ "Codes of Ethics Advocated by Groups Outside of Ontario". Trail Ethics. Trent University. January 16, 2007. Archived from the original (Web) on 2019-02-17. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  19. ↑ "The Impacts of Off-Road Vehicle Noise on Wildlife". Archived from the original on 2010-12-25. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
  20. ↑ "Chugach National Forest – Home" (PDF). Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  21. ↑ "Addressing the Ecological Effects of Off-Road Vehicles". Archived from the original on 2008-11-28. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
  22. ↑ "New Air Pollution Rules Target Off-Road Vehicles" (Web). Article. Environment News Service (ENS). September 17, 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  23. ↑ "Final Rule for Cleaner Large Industrial Spark-Ignition Engines, Recreational Marine Diesel Engines, and Recreational Vehicles" (Web). US Environmental Protection Agency. March 6, 2006. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  24. ↑ "24556 Demonstrate knowledge of the safe operation of a light utility vehicle (LUV)" (PDF). NZQA. 2019.
  25. ↑ "Standards for All Terrain Vehicles and Ban of Three-Wheeled All Terrain Vehicles; Proposed Rule". Consumer Product Safety Commission (Federal Register). 10 August 2006. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
  26. ↑ "How Many Wheels Did The Original ATV Have? – ATV Trail Reviews". 24 August 2021. Retrieved 2022-02-22.

Bibliography

  • Allen, Jim; Weber, James J. (2021). The Four-Wheeler's Bible: The Complete Guide to Off-Road and Overland Adventure Driving (3rd ed.). Beverly, MA, USA: Motorbooks. ISBN   9780760368053.

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