Particulate inorganic carbon

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Satellite imagery of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) - NASA 2014 Particulate Inorganic Carbon (PIC) map 2014.png
Satellite imagery of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) – NASA 2014

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) can be contrasted with dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. These distinctions are important in chemical oceanography. Particulate inorganic carbon is sometimes called suspended inorganic carbon. In operational terms, it is defined as the inorganic carbon in particulate form that is too large to pass through the filter used to separate dissolved inorganic carbon.

Contents

Most PIC is calcium carbonate, CaCO3, particularly in the form of calcite, but also in the form of aragonite. Calcium carbonate makes up the shells of many marine organisms. It also forms during whiting events and is excreted by marine fish during osmoregulation.

Overview

Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Inorganic carbon is found primarily in simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate (CO2, H2CO3, HCO3−, CO32− respectively).

Marine carbon is further separated into particulate and dissolved phases. These pools are operationally defined by physical separation – dissolved carbon passes through a 0.2 μm filter, and particulate carbon does not.

There are two main types of inorganic carbon that are found in the oceans. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is made up of bicarbonate (HCO3−), carbonate (CO32−) and carbon dioxide (including both dissolved CO2 and carbonic acid H2CO3). DIC can be converted to particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) through precipitation of CaCO3 (biologically or abiotically). DIC can also be converted to particulate organic carbon (POC) through photosynthesis and chemoautotrophy (i.e. primary production). DIC increases with depth as organic carbon particles sink and are respired. Free oxygen decreases as DIC increases because oxygen is consumed during aerobic respiration.

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) is the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. Most PIC is the CaCO3 that makes up shells of various marine organisms, but can also form in whiting events. Marine fish also excrete calcium carbonate during osmoregulation. [4]

Some of the inorganic carbon species in the ocean, such as bicarbonate and carbonate, are major contributors to alkalinity, a natural ocean buffer that prevents drastic changes in acidity (or pH). The marine carbon cycle also affects the reaction and dissolution rates of some chemical compounds, regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and Earth's temperature. [5]

Carbon is separated into four distinct pools based on whether it is organic/inorganic and whether it is dissolved/particulate. The processes associated with each arrow describe the transformation associated with the transfer of carbon from one reservoir to another. Marine carbon cycle.png
Carbon is separated into four distinct pools based on whether it is organic/inorganic and whether it is dissolved/particulate. The processes associated with each arrow describe the transformation associated with the transfer of carbon from one reservoir to another.
Natural particle size distributions in the ocean Natural particle size distributions in the ocean broadly follow a power law over many orders of magnitude, from viruses and bacteria to fish and whales. Non-living material contained in the particle size distribution may also include marine snow, detritus, sediment and microplastic. The power law particle size distribution is the sum of log-normal distributions for each sub-population, four examples of which are illustrated in this figure. N is the number of particles of diameter, D; K is the number of 1 mm particles per volume; J is the slope of the power-law distribution. Natural particle size distributions in the ocean.webp
Natural particle size distributions in the ocean
Natural particle size distributions in the ocean broadly follow a power law over many orders of magnitude, from viruses and bacteria to fish and whales. Non-living material contained in the particle size distribution may also include marine snow, detritus, sediment and microplastic. The power law particle size distribution is the sum of log-normal distributions for each sub-population, four examples of which are illustrated in this figure. N is the number of particles of diameter, D; K is the number of 1 μm particles per volume; J is the slope of the power-law distribution.
Particulate inorganic carbon budget for Hudson Bay Black arrows represent DIC produced by PIC dissolution. Grey lines represent terrestrial PIC. Units are Tg C y Particulate inorganic carbon budget for Hudson Bay.jpg
Particulate inorganic carbon budget for Hudson Bay
Black arrows represent DIC produced by PIC dissolution. Grey lines represent terrestrial PIC.                     Units are Tg C y

Calcium carbonate

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) usually takes the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and plays a key part in the ocean carbon cycle. [8] This biologically fixed carbon is used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). Calcium carbonate is also excreted at high rates during osmoregulation by fish, and can form in whiting events. [9] While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO2 and then responsible for removing this carbon via sequestration. [10]

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3−
Ca2+ + 2HCO3− → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

While this process does manage to fix a large amount of carbon, two units of alkalinity are sequestered for every unit of sequestered carbon. [11] [12] The formation and sinking of CaCO3 therefore drives a surface to deep alkalinity gradient which serves to raise the pH of surface waters, shifting the speciation of dissolved carbon to raise the partial pressure of dissolved CO2 in surface waters, which actually raises atmospheric levels. In addition, the burial of CaCO3 in sediments serves to lower overall oceanic alkalinity, tending to raise pH and thereby atmospheric CO2 levels if not counterbalanced by the new input of alkalinity from weathering. [13] The portion of carbon that is permanently buried at the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record. Calcium carbonate often forms remarkable deposits that can then be raised onto land through tectonic motion as in the case with the White Cliffs of Dover in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried coccolithophores. [14]

Carbonate pump

Sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon Annual mean sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon for the 1990s (GLODAP).png
Sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon

The carbonate pump, sometimes called the carbonate counter pump, starts with marine organisms at the ocean's surface producing particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) in the form of calcium carbonate (calcite or aragonite, CaCO3). This CaCO3 is what forms hard body parts like shells. [5] The formation of these shells increases atmospheric CO2 due to the production of CaCO3 [15] in the following reaction with simplified stoichiometry: [16]

Coccolithophores, a nearly ubiquitous group of phytoplankton that produce shells of calcium carbonate, are the dominant contributors to the carbonate pump. [5] Due to their abundance, coccolithophores have significant implications on carbonate chemistry, in the surface waters they inhabit and in the ocean below: they provide a large mechanism for the downward transport of CaCO3. [18] The air-sea CO2 flux induced by a marine biological community can be determined by the rain ratio - the proportion of carbon from calcium carbonate compared to that from organic carbon in particulate matter sinking to the ocean floor, (PIC/POC). [17] The carbonate pump acts as a negative feedback on CO2 taken into the ocean by the solubility pump. It occurs with lesser magnitude than the solubility pump.

The carbonate pump is sometimes referred to as the "hard tissue" component of the biological pump. [19] Some surface marine organisms, like coccolithophores, produce hard structures out of calcium carbonate, a form of particulate inorganic carbon, by fixing bicarbonate. [20] This fixation of DIC is an important part of the oceanic carbon cycle.

Ca2+ + 2 HCO3− → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

While the biological carbon pump fixes inorganic carbon (CO2) into particulate organic carbon in the form of sugar (C6H12O6), the carbonate pump fixes inorganic bicarbonate and causes a net release of CO2. [20] In this way, the carbonate pump could be termed the carbonate counter pump. It works counter to the biological pump by counteracting the CO2 flux from the biological pump. [15]

Calcite and aragonite seas

The alternation of calcite and aragonite seas through geologic time CalciteAragonite.jpg
The alternation of calcite and aragonite seas through geologic time

An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates. The chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content relative to calcium (high Mg/Ca ratio) for an aragonite sea to form. This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which seawater low in magnesium content relative to calcium (low Mg/Ca ratio) favors the formation of low-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate.

The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas, whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic (including today) are characterized by aragonite seas. [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]

Aragonite seas occur due to several factors, the most obvious of these is a high seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca > 2), which occurs during intervals of slow seafloor spreading. [24] However, the sea level, temperature, and calcium carbonate saturation state of the surrounding system also determine which polymorph of calcium carbonate (aragonite, low-magnesium calcite, high-magnesium calcite) will form. [29] [30]

Likewise, the occurrence of calcite seas is controlled by the same suite of factors controlling aragonite seas, with the most obvious being a low seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca < 2), which occurs during intervals of rapid seafloor spreading. [24] [28]

Whiting events

Aerial view of a whiting event precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario Lake Ontario Whiting NASA Satellite Image.jpg
Aerial view of a whiting event precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario

A whiting event is a phenomenon that occurs when a suspended cloud of fine-grained calcium carbonate precipitates in water bodies, typically during summer months, as a result of photosynthetic microbiological activity or sediment disturbance. [31] [32] [33] The phenomenon gets its name from the white, chalky color it imbues to the water. These events have been shown to occur in temperate waters as well as tropical ones, and they can span for hundreds of meters. [33] They can also occur in both marine and freshwater environments. [34] The origin of whiting events is debated among the scientific community, and it is unclear if there is a single, specific cause. Generally, they are thought to result from either bottom sediment re-suspension or by increased activity of certain microscopic life such as phytoplankton. [35] [36] [31] Because whiting events affect aquatic chemistry, physical properties, and carbon cycling, studying the mechanisms behind them holds scientific relevance in various ways. [37] [32] [38] [39] [40]

Great Calcite Belt

Yearly cycle of the Great Calcite Belt in the Southern Ocean

The Great Calcite Belt (GCB) of the Southern Ocean is a region of elevated summertime upper ocean calcite concentration derived from coccolithophores, despite the region being known for its diatom predominance. The overlap of two major phytoplankton groups, coccolithophores and diatoms, in the dynamic frontal systems characteristic of this region provides an ideal setting to study environmental influences on the distribution of different species within these taxonomic groups. [41]

The Great Calcite Belt, defined as an elevated particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) feature occurring alongside seasonally elevated chlorophyll a in austral spring and summer in the Southern Ocean, [42] plays an important role in climate fluctuations, [43] [44] accounting for over 60% of the Southern Ocean area (30–60° S). [45] The region between 30° and 50° S has the highest uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) alongside the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. [46] Knowledge of the impact of interacting environmental influences on phytoplankton distribution in the Southern Ocean is limited. For example, more understanding is needed of how light and iron availability or temperature and pH interact to control phytoplankton biogeography. [47] [48] [49] Hence, if model parameterizations are to improve to provide accurate predictions of biogeochemical change, a multivariate understanding of the full suite of environmental drivers is required. [50] [41]

The Southern Ocean has often been considered as a microplankton-dominated (20–200 μm) system with phytoplankton blooms dominated by large diatoms and Phaeocystis sp. [51] [52] [53] However, since the identification of the GCB as a consistent feature [42] [54] and the recognition of picoplankton (< 2 μm) and nanoplankton (2–20 μm) importance in high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters, [55] the dynamics of small (bio)mineralizing plankton and their export need to be acknowledged. The two dominant biomineralizing phytoplankton groups in the GCB are coccolithophores and diatoms. Coccolithophores are generally found north of the polar front, [56] though Emiliania huxleyi has been observed as far south as 58° S in the Scotia Sea, [57] at 61° S across Drake Passage, [49] and at 65°S south of Australia. [58] [41]

Diatoms are present throughout the GCB, with the polar front marking a strong divide between different size fractions. [59] North of the polar front, small diatom species, such as Pseudo-nitzschia spp. and Thalassiosira spp., tend to dominate numerically, whereas large diatoms with higher silicic acid requirements (e.g., Fragilariopsis kerguelensis ) are generally more abundant south of the polar front. [59] High abundances of nanoplankton (coccolithophores, small diatoms, chrysophytes) have also been observed on the Patagonian Shelf   [52] and in the Scotia Sea. [60] Currently, few studies incorporate small biomineralizing phytoplankton to species level. [59] [51] [52] [60] Rather, the focus has often been on the larger and noncalcifying species in the Southern Ocean due to sample preservation issues (i.e., acidified Lugol’s solution dissolves calcite, and light microscopy restricts accurate identification to cells > 10 μm. [60] In the context of climate change and future ecosystem function, the distribution of biomineralizing phytoplankton is important to define when considering phytoplankton interactions with carbonate chemistry, [61] [62] and ocean biogeochemistry. [63] [64] [65] [41]

The Great Calcite Belt spans the major Southern Ocean circumpolar fronts: the Subantarctic front, the polar front, the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current front, and occasionally the southern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. [66] [67] [68] The subtropical front (at approximately 10 °C) acts as the northern boundary of the GCB and is associated with a sharp increase in PIC southwards. [45] These fronts divide distinct environmental and biogeochemical zones, making the GCB an ideal study area to examine controls on phytoplankton communities in the open ocean. [53] [47] A high PIC concentration observed in the GCB (1 μmol PIC L−1) compared to the global average (0.2 μmol PIC L−1) and significant quantities of detached E. huxleyi coccoliths (in concentrations > 20,000 coccoliths mL−1) [45] both characterize the GCB. The GCB is clearly observed in satellite imagery   [42] spanning from the Patagonian Shelf   [69] [70] across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans and completing Antarctic circumnavigation via the Drake Passage. [41]

Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale. Seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt.png
Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale.
Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a) Emiliania huxleyi, (b) Fragilariopsis pseudonana, (c) Fragilariopsis nana, and (d) Pseudo-nitzschia spp. Four phytoplankton species.png
Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a) Emiliania huxleyi , (b) Fragilariopsis pseudonana , (c) Fragilariopsis nana , and (d) Pseudo-nitzschia spp.

Coccolithophores

Emiliania huxleyi Emiliania huxleyi.jpg

Since the industrial revolution 30% of the anthropogenic CO2 has been absorbed by the oceans, [71] resulting in ocean acidification, [72] which is a threat to calcifying alga. [73] [74] As a result, there has been profound interest in these calcifying algae, boosted by their major role in the global carbon cycle. [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] Globally, coccolithophores, particularly Emiliania huxleyi , are considered to be the most dominant calcifying algae, which blooms can even be seen from outer space. [80] Calcifying algae create an exoskeleton from calcium carbonate platelets (coccoliths), providing ballast which enhances the organic and inorganic carbon flux to the deep sea. [75] [81] Organic carbon is formed by means of photosynthesis, where CO2 is fixed and converted into organic molecules, causing removal of CO2 from the seawater. Counterintuitively, the production of coccoliths leads to the release of CO2 in the seawater, due to removal of carbonate from the seawater, which reduces the alkalinity and causes acidification. [82] Therefore, the ratio between particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) is an important measure for the net release or uptake of CO2. In short, the PIC:POC ratio is a key characteristic required to understand and predict the impact of climate change on the global ocean carbon cycle. [83] [72] [77] [84] [85] [79] [86]

Calcium particle morphologies

Scanning electron microscope images of marine calcium particles with different morphologies A) and B) Particles resembling bacteria and microcolonies of bacteria. B) and D) Particles similar to the Ca carbonates described to precipitate on the cell surface of cultured marine bacteria. E) and F) Particles with one flat surface suggesting that they are formed on a surface or interface. G and H) Particles with rhombohedral shape. I) and J) Baton like particles resembling Bahaman ooids. All scale bars are 2 mm except in d) where it is 1 mm and f) where it is 10 mm. Samples were collected at 5 m depth in Raunefjorden, a coastal sampling station south of Bergen, Norway. Marine calcium particles morphologies.jpg
Scanning electron microscope images of marine calcium particles
with different morphologies  
A) and B) Particles resembling bacteria and microcolonies of bacteria.
B) and D) Particles similar to the Ca carbonates described to precipitate on the cell surface of cultured marine bacteria.
E) and F) Particles with one flat surface suggesting that they are formed on a surface or interface.
G and H) Particles with rhombohedral shape.
I) and J) Baton like particles resembling Bahaman ooids.
All scale bars are 2 μm except in d) where it is 1 μm and f) where it is 10 μm. Samples were collected at 5 m depth in Raunefjorden, a coastal sampling station south of Bergen, Norway.
Present-day annual mean surface omega calcite: the normalised saturation state of calcite. Areas with a value less an 1 indicate a likeliness for dissolution (undersaturated) while a value over 1 indicates areas less likely for dissolution (oversaturation). Surface ocean present-day omega calcite, GLODAPv2.png
Present-day annual mean surface omega calcite: the normalised saturation state of calcite. Areas with a value less an 1 indicate a likeliness for dissolution (undersaturated) while a value over 1 indicates areas less likely for dissolution (oversaturation).
Stratified ocean waters showing the carbonate compensation depth and how the light, density, temperature and salinity gradients vary with water depth Stratified-Deep-Ocean-Waters.jpg
Stratified ocean waters showing the carbonate compensation depth and how the light, density, temperature and salinity gradients vary with water depth

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite, most notably in chalk and limestone, eggshells, gastropod shells, shellfish skeletons and pearls. Materials containing much calcium carbonate or resembling it are described as calcareous. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is produced when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to form limescale. It has medical use as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous and cause hypercalcemia and digestive issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coccolithophore</span> Unicellular algae responsible for the formation of chalk

Coccolithophores, or coccolithophorids, are single-celled organisms which are part of the phytoplankton, the autotrophic (self-feeding) component of the plankton community. They form a group of about 200 species, and belong either to the kingdom Protista, according to Robert Whittaker's five-kingdom system, or clade Hacrobia, according to a newer biological classification system. Within the Hacrobia, the coccolithophores are in the phylum or division Haptophyta, class Prymnesiophyceae. Coccolithophores are almost exclusively marine, are photosynthetic and mixotrophic, and exist in large numbers throughout the sunlight zone of the ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lysocline</span> Depth in the ocean below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically

The lysocline is the depth in the ocean dependent upon the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), usually around 5 km, below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically because of a pressure effect. While the lysocline is the upper bound of this transition zone of calcite saturation, the CCD is the lower bound of this zone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aragonite</span> Calcium carbonate mineral

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral and one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, the others being calcite and vaterite. It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological pump</span> Carbon capture process in oceans

The biological pump (or ocean carbon biological pump or marine biological carbon pump) is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere and land runoff to the ocean interior and seafloor sediments. In other words, it is a biologically mediated process which results in the sequestering of carbon in the deep ocean away from the atmosphere and the land. The biological pump is the biological component of the "marine carbon pump" which contains both a physical and biological component. It is the part of the broader oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis (soft-tissue pump), as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks (carbonate pump).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coccolith</span> Calcium carbonate scales covering some phytoplankton species

Coccoliths are individual plates or scales of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores and cover the cell surface arranged in the form of a spherical shell, called a coccosphere.

<i>Gephyrocapsa huxleyi</i> Unicellular algae responsible for the formation of chalk

Gephyrocapsa huxleyi, formerly called Emiliania huxleyi, is a species of coccolithophore found in almost all ocean ecosystems from the equator to sub-polar regions, and from nutrient rich upwelling zones to nutrient poor oligotrophic waters. It is one of thousands of different photosynthetic plankton that freely drift in the photic zone of the ocean, forming the basis of virtually all marine food webs. It is studied for the extensive blooms it forms in nutrient-depleted waters after the reformation of the summer thermocline. Like other coccolithophores, E. huxleyi is a single-celled phytoplankton covered with uniquely ornamented calcite disks called coccoliths. Individual coccoliths are abundant in marine sediments although complete coccospheres are more unusual. In the case of E. huxleyi, not only the shell, but also the soft part of the organism may be recorded in sediments. It produces a group of chemical compounds that are very resistant to decomposition. These chemical compounds, known as alkenones, can be found in marine sediments long after other soft parts of the organisms have decomposed. Alkenones are most commonly used by earth scientists as a means to estimate past sea surface temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dissolved inorganic carbon</span> Sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution

Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is the sum of the aqueous species of inorganic carbon in a solution. Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and as dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification</span> Decrease of pH levels in the ocean

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide levels exceeding 422 ppm. CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The presence of free hydrogen ions lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity. Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.

The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is the depth, in the oceans, at which the rate of supply of calcium carbonates matches the rate of solvation. That is, solvation 'compensates' supply. Below the CCD solvation is faster, so that carbonate particles dissolve and the carbonate shells (tests) of animals are not preserved. Carbonate particles cannot accumulate in the sediments where the sea floor is below this depth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcite sea</span> Sea chemistry favouring low-magnesium calcite as the inorganic calcium carbonate precipitate

A calcite sea is a sea in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate. An aragonite sea is the alternate seawater chemistry in which aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates. The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas, whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic are characterized by aragonite seas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aragonite sea</span> Chemical conditions of the sea favouring aragonite deposition

An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates. The chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content relative to calcium for an aragonite sea to form. This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which seawater low in magnesium content relative to calcium favors the formation of low-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic carbon cycle</span> Ocean/atmosphere carbon exchange process

The oceanic carbon cycle is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. The carbon cycle is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both inorganic carbon and organic carbon. Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shell growth in estuaries</span>

Shell growth in estuaries is an aspect of marine biology that has attracted a number of scientific research studies. Many groups of marine organisms produce calcified exoskeletons, commonly known as shells, hard calcium carbonate structures which the organisms rely on for various specialized structural and defensive purposes. The rate at which these shells form is greatly influenced by physical and chemical characteristics of the water in which these organisms live. Estuaries are dynamic habitats which expose their inhabitants to a wide array of rapidly changing physical conditions, exaggerating the differences in physical and chemical properties of the water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine biogenic calcification</span> Shell formation mechanism

Marine biogenic calcification is the production of calcium carbonate by organisms in the global ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification in the Arctic Ocean</span>

The Arctic Ocean covers an area of 14,056,000 square kilometers, and supports a diverse and important socioeconomic food web of organisms, despite its average water temperature being 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Over the last three decades, the Arctic Ocean has experienced drastic changes due to climate change. One of the changes is in the acidity levels of the ocean, which have been consistently increasing at twice the rate of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Arctic Ocean acidification is a result of feedback from climate system mechanisms, and is having negative impacts on Arctic Ocean ecosystems and the organisms that live within them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Total inorganic carbon</span> Sum of the inorganic carbon species

Total inorganic carbon is the sum of the inorganic carbon species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protist shell</span> Protective shell of a type of eukaryotic organism

Many protists have protective shells or tests, usually made from silica (glass) or calcium carbonate (chalk). Protists are a diverse group of eukaryote organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic unicellular organisms that live in water or moist environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Calcite Belt</span> High-calcite region of the Southern Ocean

The Great Calcite Belt (GCB) refers to a region of the ocean where there are high concentrations of calcite, a mineral form of calcium carbonate. The belt extends over a large area of the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica. The calcite in the Great Calcite Belt is formed by tiny marine organisms called coccolithophores, which build their shells out of calcium carbonate. When these organisms die, their shells sink to the bottom of the ocean, and over time, they accumulate to form a thick layer of calcite sediment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martin curve</span> Mathematical representation of particulate organic carbon export to ocean floor

The Martin curve is a power law used by oceanographers to describe the export to the ocean floor of particulate organic carbon (POC). The curve is controlled with two parameters: the reference depth in the water column, and a remineralisation parameter which is a measure of the rate at which the vertical flux of POC attenuates. It is named after the American oceanographer John Martin.

References

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