Great Calcite Belt

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Yearly cycle of the Great Calcite Belt in the Southern Ocean. The belt appears during the southern hemisphere summer as a light teal stripe.

The Great Calcite Belt (GCB) refers to a region of the ocean where there are high concentrations of calcite, a mineral form of calcium carbonate. The belt extends over a large area of the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica. The calcite in the Great Calcite Belt is formed by tiny marine organisms called coccolithophores, which build their shells out of calcium carbonate. When these organisms die, their shells sink to the bottom of the ocean, and over time, they accumulate to form a thick layer of calcite sediment.

Contents

The Great Calcite Belt occurs in areas of the Southern ocean where the calcite compensation depth (CCD) is relatively shallow, meaning that calcite minerals from the shells of marine organisms dissolve at a shallower depth in the water column. This results in a higher concentration of calcium carbonate sediments in the ocean floor, which can be observed in the form of white chalky sediments.

The Great Calcite Belt plays a significant role regulating the global carbon cycle. Calcite is a form of carbon that is removed from the atmosphere and stored in the ocean, which helps to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and mitigate the effects of climate change. Recent studies suggest the belt sequesters something between 15 and 30 million tonnes of carbon per year. [1] [2]

Scientists have further interest in the calcite sediments in the belt, which contain valuable information about past climate, ocean currents, ocean chemistry, and marine ecosystems. For example, variations in the CCD depth over time can indicate changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the ocean's ability to absorb it. The belt is also home to a diverse range of contemporary marine life, including deep-sea corals and fish that are adapted to the unique conditions found in this part of the ocean. The Great Calcite Belt is a region of elevated summertime upper ocean calcite concentration derived from coccolithophores, despite the region being known for its diatom predominance. The overlap of two major phytoplankton groups, coccolithophores and diatoms, in the dynamic frontal systems characteristic of this region provides an ideal setting to study environmental influences on the distribution of different species within these taxonomic groups. [3]

Overview

The Great Calcite Belt can be defined as an elevated particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) feature occurring alongside seasonally elevated chlorophyll a in austral spring and summer in the Southern Ocean. [4] It plays an important role in climate fluctuations, [5] [6] accounting for over 60% of the Southern Ocean area (30–60° S). [7] The region between 30° and 50° S has the highest uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) alongside the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. [8] Knowledge of the impact of interacting environmental influences on phytoplankton distribution in the Southern Ocean is limited. For example, more understanding is needed of how light and iron availability or temperature and pH interact to control phytoplankton biogeography. [9] [10] [11] Hence, if model parameterizations are to improve to provide accurate predictions of biogeochemical change, a multivariate understanding of the full suite of environmental drivers is required. [12] [3]

The Southern Ocean has often been considered as a microplankton-dominated (20–200 µm) system with phytoplankton blooms dominated by large diatoms and Phaeocystis sp. [13] [14] [15] However, since the identification of the Great Calcite Belt (GCB) as a consistent feature [4] [16] and the recognition of picoplankton (< 2 µm) and nanoplankton (2–20 µm) importance in high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters, [17] the dynamics of small (bio)mineralizing plankton and their export need to be acknowledged. The two dominant biomineralizing phytoplankton groups in the GCB are coccolithophores and diatoms. Coccolithophores are generally found north of the polar front, [18] though Emiliania huxleyi has been observed as far south as 58° S in the Scotia Sea, [19] at 61° S across Drake Passage, [11] and at 65°S south of Australia. [20] [3]

Diatoms are present throughout the GCB, with the polar front marking a strong divide between different size fractions. [21] North of the polar front, small diatom species, such as Pseudo-nitzschia spp. and Thalassiosira spp., tend to dominate numerically, whereas large diatoms with higher silicic acid requirements (e.g., Fragilariopsis kerguelensis ) are generally more abundant south of the polar front. [21] High abundances of nanoplankton (coccolithophores, small diatoms, chrysophytes) have also been observed on the Patagonian Shelf   [14] and in the Scotia Sea. [22] Currently, few studies incorporate small biomineralizing phytoplankton to species level. [21] [13] [14] [22] Rather, the focus has often been on the larger and noncalcifying species in the Southern Ocean due to sample preservation issues (i.e., acidified Lugol’s solution dissolves calcite, and light microscopy restricts accurate identification to cells > 10 µm. [22] In the context of climate change and future ecosystem function, the distribution of biomineralizing phytoplankton is important to define when considering phytoplankton interactions with carbonate chemistry, [23] [24] and ocean biogeochemistry. [25] [26] [27] [3]

Ecological zones of the Southern Ocean Ecological-zones-of-the-Southern-Ocean.png
Ecological zones of the Southern Ocean

The Great Calcite Belt spans the major Southern Ocean circumpolar fronts: the Subantarctic front, the polar front, the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current front, and occasionally the southern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. [28] [29] [30] The subtropical front (at approximately 10 °C) acts as the northern boundary of the GCB and is associated with a sharp increase in PIC southwards. [7] These fronts divide distinct environmental and biogeochemical zones, making the GCB an ideal study area to examine controls on phytoplankton communities in the open ocean. [15] [9] A high PIC concentration observed in the GCB (1 µmol PIC L−1) compared to the global average (0.2 µmol PIC L−1) and significant quantities of detached E. huxleyi coccoliths (in concentrations > 20,000 coccoliths mL−1) [7] both characterize the GCB. The GCB is clearly observed in satellite imagery   [4] spanning from the Patagonian Shelf   [31] [32] across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans and completing Antarctic circumnavigation via the Drake Passage. [3]

Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a) Emiliania huxleyi, (b) Fragilariopsis pseudonana, (c) Fragilariopsis nana, and (d) Pseudo-nitzschia spp. Four phytoplankton species.png
Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a)  Emiliania huxleyi , (b)  Fragilariopsis pseudonana , (c)  Fragilariopsis nana , and (d)  Pseudo-nitzschia spp.

Coccolithophores versus the diatom

Coccolithophores and diatoms in the Southern Ocean. Biomass distributions for the four months from December to March. Mean top 50 metres of coccolithophore (left) and diatom (right) carbon biomass (mmol/m ) using a regional high-resolution model for the Southern Ocean. Coccolithophore and diatom biomass observations from the top 50 metres are indicated by coloured dots. (Note difference in scales.) Coccolithophores and diatoms in the Southern Ocean 2.png
Coccolithophores and diatoms in the Southern Ocean. Biomass distributions for the four months from December to March. Mean top 50 metres of coccolithophore (left) and diatom (right) carbon biomass (mmol/m ) using a regional high-resolution model for the Southern Ocean. Coccolithophore and diatom biomass observations from the top 50 metres are indicated by coloured dots. (Note difference in scales.)

The biogeography of Southern Ocean phytoplankton controls the local biogeochemistry and the export of macronutrients to lower latitudes and depth. Of particular relevance is the competitive interaction between coccolithophores and diatoms, with the former being prevalent along the Great Calcite Belt (40–60°S), while diatoms tend to dominate the regions south of 60°S, as illustrated in the diagram on the right. [33]

The ocean is changing at an unprecedented rate as a consequence of increasing anthropogenic CO2 emissions and related climate change. Changes in density stratification and nutrient supply, as well as ocean acidification, lead to changes in phytoplankton community composition and consequently ecosystem structure and function. Some of these changes are already observable today  [34] [35] and may have cascading effects on global biogeochemical cycles and oceanic carbon uptake. [36] [37] [38] Changes in Southern Ocean (SO) biogeography are especially critical due to the importance of the Southern Ocean in fuelling primary production at lower latitudes through the lateral export of nutrients  [39] and in taking up anthropogenic CO2. [40] For the carbon cycle, the ratio of calcifying and noncalcifying phytoplankton is crucial due to the counteracting effects of calcification and photosynthesis on seawater pCO2, which ultimately controls CO2 exchange with the atmosphere, and the differing ballasting effect of calcite and silicic acid shells for organic carbon export. [33]

Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale. Seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt.png
Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale.

Calcifying coccolithophores and silicifying diatoms are globally ubiquitous phytoplankton functional groups. [41] [42] Diatoms are a major contributor to global phytoplankton biomass  [43] and annual net primary production. [44] In comparison, coccolithophores contribute less to biomass  [43] and to global NPP. [45] [46] [47] [48] [33]

However, coccolithophores are the major phytoplanktonic calcifier. [49] thereby significantly impacting the global carbon cycle. Diatoms dominate the phytoplankton community in the Southern Ocean, [50] [51] [52] but coccolithophores have received increasing attention in recent years. Satellite imagery of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC, a proxy for coccolithophore abundance) revealed the "Great Calcite Belt", [53] an annually reoccurring circumpolar band of elevated PIC concentrations between 40 and 60°S. In situ observations confirmed coccolithophore abundances of up to 2.4×103 cells mL−1 in the Atlantic sector (blooms on the Patagonian Shelf), up to 3.8×102 cells mL−1 in the Indian sector, [16] and up to 5.4×102 cells mL−1 in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean  [54] with Emiliania huxleyi being the dominant species. [16] [55] However, the contribution of coccolithophores to total Southern Ocean phytoplankton biomass and NPP has not yet been assessed. Locally, elevated coccolithophore abundance in the GCB has been found to turn surface waters into a source of CO2 for the atmosphere, [16] emphasising the necessity to understand the controls on their abundance in the Southern Ocean in the context of the carbon cycle and climate change. While coccolithophores have been observed to have moved polewards in recent decades, [56] [57] [35] their response to the combined effects of future warming and ocean acidification is still subject to debate. [58] [56] [59] [60] [61] As their response will also crucially depend on future phytoplankton community composition and predator–prey interactions, [62] it is essential to assess the controls on their abundance in today's climate. [33]

Top-down and bottom-up approaches

Coccolithophore biomass is controlled by a combination of bottom-up (physical–biogeochemical environment) and top-down factors (predator–prey interactions), but the relative importance of the two has not yet been assessed for coccolithophores in the Southern Ocean. Bottom-up factors directly impact phytoplankton growth, and diatoms and coccolithophores are traditionally discriminated based on their differing requirements for nutrients, turbulence, and light. Based on this, Margalef's mandala predicts a seasonal succession from diatoms to coccolithophores as light levels increase and nutrient levels decline. [63] In situ studies assessing Southern Ocean coccolithophore biogeography have found coccolithophores under various environmental conditions, [16] [64] [65] [55] [51] thus suggesting a wide ecological niche, but all of the mentioned studies have almost exclusively focused on bottom-up controls. [33]

However, phytoplankton growth rates do not necessarily covary with biomass accumulation rates. Using satellite data from the North Atlantic, Behrenfeld stressed in 2014 the importance of simultaneously considering bottom-up and top-down factors when assessing seasonal phytoplankton biomass dynamics and the succession of different phytoplankton types owing to the spatially and temporally varying relative importance of the physical–biogeochemical and the biological environment. [66] [33]

Types of marine sediments in the Southern Ocean: (1) calcareous ooze/mud, (2, 3) biosiliceous/mud, (4) coarse lithogenic sediments, (5, 6) lithogenic sand/mud Sediments-southerocean.png
Types of marine sediments in the Southern Ocean: (1) calcareous ooze/mud, (2, 3) biosiliceous/mud, (4) coarse lithogenic sediments, (5, 6) lithogenic sand/mud

In the Southern Ocean, previous studies have shown zooplankton grazing to control total phytoplankton biomass, [67] phytoplankton community composition, [68] and ecosystem structure, [69] [70] suggesting that top-down control might also be an important driver for the relative abundance of coccolithophores and diatoms. But the role of zooplankton grazing in current Earth system models is not well considered, [71] [72] and the impact of different grazing formulations on phytoplankton biogeography and diversity is subject to ongoing research. [73] [74] [33]

The diagram on the left shows the spatial distribution of different types of marine sediments in the Southern Ocean. The greenish area south of the Polar Front shows the extension of the subpolar opal belt where sediments have a significant portion of silicous plankton frustules. Sediments near Antarctica mainly consist of glacial debris in any grain size eroded and delivered by the Antarctic Ice. [75] [76]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coccolithophore</span> Unicellular algae responsible for the formation of chalk

Coccolithophores, or coccolithophorids, are single-celled organisms which are part of the phytoplankton, the autotrophic (self-feeding) component of the plankton community. They form a group of about 200 species, and belong either to the kingdom Protista, according to Robert Whittaker's five-kingdom system, or clade Hacrobia, according to a newer biological classification system. Within the Hacrobia, the coccolithophores are in the phylum or division Haptophyta, class Prymnesiophyceae. Coccolithophores are almost exclusively marine, are photosynthetic, and exist in large numbers throughout the sunlight zone of the ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phytoplankton</span> Autotrophic members of the plankton ecosystem

Phytoplankton are the autotrophic (self-feeding) components of the plankton community and a key part of ocean and freshwater ecosystems. The name comes from the Greek words φυτόν, meaning 'plant', and πλαγκτός, meaning 'wanderer' or 'drifter'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological pump</span> Carbon capture process in oceans

The biological pump (or ocean carbon biological pump or marine biological carbon pump) is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere and land runoff to the ocean interior and seafloor sediments. In other words, it is a biologically mediated process which results in the sequestering of carbon in the deep ocean away from the atmosphere and the land. The biological pump is the biological component of the "marine carbon pump" which contains both a physical and biological component. It is the part of the broader oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis (soft-tissue pump), as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks (carbonate pump).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coccolith</span>

Coccoliths are individual plates or scales of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores and cover the cell surface arranged in the form of a spherical shell, called a coccosphere.

<i>Emiliania huxleyi</i> Unicellular algae responsible for the formation of chalk

Emiliania huxleyi is a species of coccolithophore found in almost all ocean ecosystems from the equator to sub-polar regions, and from nutrient rich upwelling zones to nutrient poor oligotrophic waters. It is one of thousands of different photosynthetic plankton that freely drift in the photic zone of the ocean, forming the basis of virtually all marine food webs. It is studied for the extensive blooms it forms in nutrient-depleted waters after the reformation of the summer thermocline. Like other coccolithophores, E. huxleyi is a single-celled phytoplankton covered with uniquely ornamented calcite disks called coccoliths. Individual coccoliths are abundant in marine sediments although complete coccospheres are more unusual. In the case of E. huxleyi, not only the shell, but also the soft part of the organism may be recorded in sediments. It produces a group of chemical compounds that are very resistant to decomposition. These chemical compounds, known as alkenones, can be found in marine sediments long after other soft parts of the organisms have decomposed. Alkenones are most commonly used by earth scientists as a means to estimate past sea surface temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron cycle</span>

The iron cycle (Fe) is the biogeochemical cycle of iron through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and lithosphere. While Fe is highly abundant in the Earth's crust, it is less common in oxygenated surface waters. Iron is a key micronutrient in primary productivity, and a limiting nutrient in the Southern ocean, eastern equatorial Pacific, and the subarctic Pacific referred to as High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) regions of the ocean.

High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) regions are regions of the ocean where the abundance of phytoplankton is low and fairly constant despite the availability of macronutrients. Phytoplankton rely on a suite of nutrients for cellular function. Macronutrients are generally available in higher quantities in surface ocean waters, and are the typical components of common garden fertilizers. Micronutrients are generally available in lower quantities and include trace metals. Macronutrients are typically available in millimolar concentrations, while micronutrients are generally available in micro- to nanomolar concentrations. In general, nitrogen tends to be a limiting ocean nutrient, but in HNLC regions it is never significantly depleted. Instead, these regions tend to be limited by low concentrations of metabolizable iron. Iron is a critical phytoplankton micronutrient necessary for enzyme catalysis and electron transport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification</span> Climate change-induced decline of pH levels in the ocean

Ocean acidification is the decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide levels exceeding 410 ppm. CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This produces carbonic acid which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The presence of free hydrogen ions lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity. Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron fertilization</span> Ecological concept

Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron-containing compounds to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production. This is intended to enhance biological productivity and/or accelerate carbon dioxide sequestration from the atmosphere. Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in plants. It is highly insoluble in sea water and in a variety of locations is the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth. Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters. These blooms can nourish other organisms.

Alkenones are long-chain unsaturated methyl and ethyl n-ketones produced by a few phytoplankton species of the class Prymnesiophyceae. Alkenones typically contain between 35 and 41 carbon atoms and with between two and four double bonds. Uniquely for biolipids, alkenones have a spacing of five methylene groups between double bonds, which are of the less common E configuration. The biological function of alkenones remains under debate although it is likely that they are storage lipids. Alkenones were first described in ocean sediments recovered from Walvis Ridge and then shortly afterwards in cultures of the marine coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. The earliest known occurrence of alkenones is during the Aptian 120 million years ago. They are used in organic geochemistry as a proxy for past sea surface temperature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CLAW hypothesis</span> A hypothesised negative feedback loop connecting the marine biota and the climate

The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth's climate. The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing, and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere. The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson, James Lovelock, Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren, and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siliceous ooze</span> Biogenic pelagic sediment located on the deep ocean floor

Siliceous ooze is a type of biogenic pelagic sediment located on the deep ocean floor. Siliceous oozes are the least common of the deep sea sediments, and make up approximately 15% of the ocean floor. Oozes are defined as sediments which contain at least 30% skeletal remains of pelagic microorganisms. Siliceous oozes are largely composed of the silica based skeletons of microscopic marine organisms such as diatoms and radiolarians. Other components of siliceous oozes near continental margins may include terrestrially derived silica particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous oozes are composed of skeletons made from opal silica SiO2·nH2O, as opposed to calcareous oozes, which are made from skeletons of calcium carbonate (CaCO3·nH2O) organisms (i.e. coccolithophores). Silica (Si) is a bioessential element and is efficiently recycled in the marine environment through the silica cycle. Distance from land masses, water depth and ocean fertility are all factors that affect the opal silica content in seawater and the presence of siliceous oozes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic carbon cycle</span> Ocean/atmosphere carbon exchange process

The oceanic carbon cycle is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. The carbon cycle is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both inorganic carbon and organic carbon. Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particulate organic matter</span>

Particulate organic matter (POM) is a fraction of total organic matter operationally defined as that which does not pass through a filter pore size that typically ranges in size from 0.053 millimeters (53 μm) to 2 millimeters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silica cycle</span> Biogeochemical cycle

The silica cycle is the biogeochemical cycle in which biogenic silica is transported between the Earth's systems. Silicon is considered a bioessential element and is one of the most abundant elements on Earth. The silica cycle has significant overlap with the carbon cycle and plays an important role in the sequestration of carbon through continental weathering, biogenic export and burial as oozes on geologic timescales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine primary production</span> Marine synthesis of organic compounds

Marine primary production is the chemical synthesis in the ocean of organic compounds from atmospheric or dissolved carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are called primary producers or autotrophs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine protists</span> Protists that live in saltwater or brackish water

Marine protists are defined by their habitat as protists that live in marine environments, that is, in the saltwater of seas or oceans or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. Life originated as marine single-celled prokaryotes and later evolved into more complex eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are the more developed life forms known as plants, animals, fungi and protists. Protists are the eukaryotes that cannot be classified as plants, fungi or animals. They are mostly single-celled and microscopic. The term protist came into use historically as a term of convenience for eukaryotes that cannot be strictly classified as plants, animals or fungi. They are not a part of modern cladistics because they are paraphyletic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protist shell</span> Protective shell of a type of eukaryotic organism

Many protists have protective shells or tests, usually made from silica (glass) or calcium carbonate (chalk). Protists are a diverse group of eukaryote organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic unicellular organisms that live in water or moist environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particulate inorganic carbon</span>

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) can be contrasted with dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. These distinctions are important in chemical oceanography. Particulate inorganic carbon is sometimes called suspended inorganic carbon. In operational terms, it is defined as the inorganic carbon in particulate form that is too large to pass through the filter used to separate dissolved inorganic carbon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martin curve</span> Mathematical representation of particulate organic carbon export to ocean floor

The Martin curve is a power law used by oceanographers to describe the export to the ocean floor of particulate organic carbon (POC). The curve is controlled with two parameters: the reference depth in the water column, and a remineralisation parameter which is a measure of the rate at which the vertical flux of POC attenuates. It is named after the American oceanographer John Martin.

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