Pigeye shark

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Pigeye shark
Carcharhinus amboinensis ranong.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Order: Carcharhiniformes
Family: Carcharhinidae
Genus: Carcharhinus
Species:
C. amboinensis
Binomial name
Carcharhinus amboinensis
(Müller & Henle, 1839)
Carcharhinus amboinensis distmap.png
Range of the pigeye shark [2]
Synonyms

Carcharias amboinensisMüller & Henle, 1839
Carcharias henlei Bleeker, 1853
Carcharias brachyrhynchosBleeker, 1859
Triaenodon obtusus Day, 1878

Contents

The pigeye shark or Java shark (Carcharhinus amboinensis) is an uncommon species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the warm coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic and western Indo-Pacific. It prefers shallow, murky environments with soft bottoms, and tends to roam within a fairly localised area. With its bulky grey body, small eyes, and short, blunt snout, the pigeye shark looks almost identical to (and is often confused with) the better-known bull shark (C. leucas). The two species differ in vertebral count, the relative sizes of the dorsal fins, and other subtle traits. This shark typically reaches lengths of 1.9–2.5 m (6.2–8.2 ft).

The pigeye shark is an apex predator that mostly hunts low in the water column. It has a varied diet, consisting mainly of bony and cartilaginous fishes and also including crustaceans, molluscs, sea snakes, and cetaceans. This species gives birth to live young, with the developing embryos sustained to term via a placental connection to their mother. Litters of three to thirteen pups are born after a gestation period of nine or twelve months. Young sharks spend their first few years of life in sheltered inshore habitats such as bays, where their movements follow tidal and seasonal patterns. The pigeye shark's size and dentition make it potentially dangerous, though it has not been known to attack humans. The shark is infrequently caught in shark nets protecting beaches and by fisheries, which use it for meat and fins. The IUCN presently assesses this species as vulnerable.

Taxonomy

Drawing of Triaenodon obtusus, a synonym of C. amboinensis, from Francis Day's Fauna of British India (1889) Carcharhinus amboinensis Day.jpg
Drawing of Triaenodon obtusus, a synonym of C. amboinensis, from Francis Day's Fauna of British India (1889)

German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle described the pigeye shark and named it Carcharias (Prionodon) amboinensis in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen. Later authors reassigned it to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen is a stuffed female 74 cm (29 in) long, originally caught off Ambon Island in Indonesia, from which the specific epithet is derived. [3] [4] Several junior synonyms are known for this species, among them Triaenodon obtusus, which was based on a near-birth pigeye shark foetus. [4]

Phylogeny and evolution

Since the pigeye shark so strongly resembles the bull shark, morphology-based phylogenetic studies have considered the two species to be closely related. [5] [6] Neither this nor any other arrangement is strongly supported by molecular phylogenetic research, which to date has been inconclusive regarding this shark's evolutionary relationship to other Carcharhinus species. [7] [8]

Genetic analysis of pigeye sharks across northern Australia suggest that the evolutionary history of this species was affected by coastline changes during the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 12,000 years ago). The patterns of diversity found in its mitochondrial DNA are consistent with the repeated splitting and merging of its populations as geographical barriers were alternately formed and inundated. The most recent of these barriers was a land bridge across the Torres Strait that reopened only some 6,000 years ago; as a result, significant genetic separation exists between the sharks found off Western Australia and the Northern Territory and those found off Queensland. [9]

Description

Carcharhinus amboinensis phuket.JPG
Carcharhinus leucas nefsc.jpg
The pigeye shark (top) closely resembles the bull shark (bottom); external differences between the two species include the relative sizes of the dorsal fins and the angle of the notch in the anal fin.

The pigeye shark is a very robust-bodied species with a short, broad, and rounded snout. The small and circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes. The anterior rims of the nostrils bear medium-sized flaps of skin. The mouth forms a wide arch and has barely noticeable furrows at the corners. There are 11–13 (usually 12) upper and 10–12 (usually 11) lower tooth rows on each side; in addition, there are single rows of tiny teeth at the upper and lower symphyses (jaw midpoints). The teeth are broad and triangular with serrated edges; those in the lower jaw are slightly narrower, more upright, and more finely serrated than those in the upper. The five pairs of gill slits are of moderate length. [2] [4] [10]

The first dorsal fin is large and triangular, with a pointed apex and a concave trailing margin; it originates roughly over the posterior insertions of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is less than a third as high as the first, and originates ahead of the anal fin. There is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins. The long pectoral fins are broad and slightly falcate (sickle-shaped), becoming narrow and pointed at the tips. The anal fin has a sharply notched trailing margin. The caudal peduncle has a deep notch on its upper surface at the caudal fin origin. The caudal fin is asymmetrical, with a well-developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a notch in the trailing margin near its tip. [2] [4] [10]

The skin is covered by rather large dermal denticles, which become more tightly packed and overlapping with age; each denticle bears three to five horizontal ridges and five posterior teeth. [2] This species is grey above and white below, with a faint pale band on the flanks. The second dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe darken at the tips, particularly in juveniles. [4] An albino individual was caught off Queensland in 1987, which was the first known example of albinism in a requiem shark. [11] An adult pigeye shark typically measures 1.9–2.5 m (6.2–8.2 ft) long, while the largest individuals reach 2.8 m (9.2 ft) long. [2]

The pigeye shark can be most reliably distinguished from the bull shark by the number of precaudal (before the caudal fin) vertebrae (89–95 in C. amboinensis versus 101–123 in C. leucas). Externally, it has a greater size difference between its dorsal fins (first-to-second height ratio >3.1:1 versus ≤3.1:1 in C. leucas) and the notch in its anal fin margin forms an acute angle (versus a right angle in C. leucas). This species also usually has fewer tooth rows in the lower jaw (10–12 on each side versus 12–13 in C. leucas). [2] [4]

Distribution and habitat

Though widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical marine waters of Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania, the pigeye shark does not appear to be common anywhere. Existing records are patchy, and the full extent of its range may be obscured by confusion with the bull shark. [1] In the eastern Atlantic, it is found off Cape Verde and Senegal, and from Nigeria to Namibia; [2] there is a single Mediterranean record from off Crotone, Italy. [12] It occurs all along the continental periphery of the Indian Ocean, from eastern South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula (including Madagascar, the Seychelles, and Mauritius), to Southeast Asia and northern Australia. Its range extends into the Pacific, northward to the Philippines and southern China, and eastward to New Guinea and some Micronesian islands. [2] Tagging and genetic data indicate that pigeye sharks, particularly juveniles, are not strongly migratory and tend to remain in a local area. The longest recorded distance covered by an adult is 1,080 km (670 mi). [9] [10]

The pigeye shark inhabits coastal waters down to a depth of 150 m (490 ft), favouring environments with fine sediment and murky water. It sometimes enters estuaries, but unlike the bull shark, it does not ascend rivers and avoids brackish water. [2] [13] The movements and habitat usage of juvenile pigeye sharks have been extensively studied in Cleveland Bay in northeastern Queensland. Young sharks live in the bay year-round, staying mostly in the eastern side where the input from three rivers produces strong currents and high turbidity. Individual home ranges are relatively small, averaging 30 km2 (12 sq mi), and increase in size with age. The juveniles generally stay in water less than 40 m (130 ft) deep, with the youngest sharks spending the most time in the shallowest parts of the bay. They swim into the intertidal zone with the rising tide and depart as the tide recedes; this movement may relate to exploiting foraging opportunities on the submerged mud flats, or to avoiding predation or competition by staying out of the deeper waters occupied by larger sharks. There is also an annual movement cycle where the juveniles move closer to the river mouths during the dry season and farther from them during the wet season; since the rainy season brings a higher flow of fresh water into the bay, the sharks may be responding directly or indirectly to the resultant decrease in salinity and dissolved oxygen levels. [14] [15]

Biology and ecology

The pigeye shark is a largely solitary animal, though occasionally several individuals may be found at the same location. [13] In the Mozambique Channel, it outnumbers the bull shark on the east side while the opposite is true on the west side, suggesting there may be competitive exclusion between these similar species. [4] Parasites documented from the pigeye shark include the myxosporean Kudoa carcharhini , [16] the copepods Pandarus smithii and P. cranchii , [17] and the tapeworms Callitetrarhynchus gracilis , [18] Cathetocephalus sp., [19] Floriceps minacanthus , [20] Heteronybelinia australis , [21] Otobothrium australe , O. crenacolle , [22] and Protogrillotia sp. [18] Young pigeye sharks are potentially vulnerable to predation by larger sharks. The natural mortality for juveniles in Cleveland Bay has been measured at no more than 5% per year; this rate is comparable to that in juvenile bull sharks, and is much lower than in juvenile blacktip sharks (C. limbatus) or lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris). [23]

Feeding

Guitarfishes and other cartilaginous fishes are preyed upon by the pigeye shark, particularly off South Africa. Rhynchobatus djiddensis durban.jpg
Guitarfishes and other cartilaginous fishes are preyed upon by the pigeye shark, particularly off South Africa.

Though the pigeye shark will take prey from anywhere in the water column, it tends to hunt close to the sea floor. [13] An apex predator, it feeds mainly on teleost fishes such as croakers, flatfishes, and cutlassfishes, and to a lesser extent on cartilaginous fishes, cephalopods, and decapod crustaceans. It has also been recorded eating gastropods, sea snakes, dolphins, and whale carrion. [4] [24] Other sharks and rays figure much more prominently in the diets of South African pigeye sharks than those from other regions; the types consumed include requiem sharks, catsharks, angel sharks, guitarfishes, stingrays, and eagle rays. [13]

Life history

The pigeye shark is viviparous; like in other requiem sharks, after the developing embryo depletes its supply of yolk, it is sustained to term by its mother through a placental connection formed from the empty yolk sac. [4] Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteruses. Reproductive details vary among regions: off South Africa, the gestation period lasts about 12 months, with mating and birthing both occurring in late summer. The litters range from three to seven pups (average five) and the newborns are around 75–79 cm (30–31 in) long. [1] [13] Off northern Australia, the gestation period lasts 9 months, with birthing taking place in November and December. The litters range from six to 13 pups (average 9) and the newborns are around 59–66 cm (23–26 in) long. [25]

Young sharks can be found in shallow inshore environments such as bays until at least three years of age, suggesting this species uses these sheltered habitats as nurseries. [26] As the sharks grow older, they venture farther from land into deeper water, more and more often, until they eventually disperse. [14] [27] This is a long-lived, slow-growing species; males grow faster and reach a smaller ultimate size than females. Sexual maturity is attained at around 2.1 m (6.9 ft) long and 12 years of age for males, and 2.2 m (7.2 ft) long and 13 years of age for females. The maximum lifespan is at least 26 years for males and 30 years for females. [25] [28]

Human interactions

Large and formidably toothed, the pigeye shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans, though it has not been implicated in any attacks. This species is caught infrequently on longlines and in gillnets, and is used for meat and fins. [10] As a predator, though, the shark can accumulate ciguatera toxins produced by dinoflagellates within its tissues. In November 1993, some 500 people in Manakara, Madagascar, were poisoned, 98 of them fatally, after eating meat from a pigeye shark. This was the first recorded mass ciguatera outbreak caused by a shark, as well as the first with a significant death toll. [29] The IUCN has listed the pigeye shark overall as vulnerable, while noting that its rarity may render it susceptible to overfishing. [1] In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, small numbers of pigeye sharks are caught in shark nets set up to protect beaches. The catch rate and the average size of sharks caught both decreased between 1978 and 1998, leading to concerns that the local population may be depleted. Thus, the IUCN has given this species a regional assessment of Near Threatened in the southwestern Indian Ocean. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Requiem shark</span> Family of sharks

Requiem sharks are sharks of the family Carcharhinidae in the order Carcharhiniformes. They are migratory, live-bearing sharks of warm seas and include such species as the bull shark, lemon shark, spinner shark, blacknose shark, blacktip shark, grey reef shark, blacktip reef shark, silky shark, dusky shark, blue shark, copper shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and whitetip reef shark.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bull shark</span> Species of fish

The bull shark, also known as the Zambezi shark in Africa and Lake Nicaragua shark in Nicaragua, is a species of requiem shark commonly found worldwide in warm, shallow waters along coasts and in rivers. It is known for its aggressive nature, and presence mainly in warm, shallow brackish and freshwater systems including estuaries and (usually) lower reaches of rivers. This aggressive nature is a reason for its population being listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Shark-culling occurs near beaches to protect beach goers, which is one of the causes of bull shark populations continuing to decrease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey reef shark</span> Species of shark

The grey reef shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae. One of the most common reef sharks in the Indo-Pacific, it is found as far east as Easter Island and as far west as South Africa. This species is most often seen in shallow water near the drop-offs of coral reefs. It has the typical "reef shark" shape, with a broad, round snout and large eyes. It can be distinguished from similar species by the plain or white-tipped first dorsal fin, the dark tips on the other fins, the broad, black rear margin on the tail fin, and the lack of a ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals are less than 1.88 m (6.2 ft) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandbar shark</span> Species of shark

The sandbar shark, also known as the brown shark or thickskin shark, is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Indo-Pacific. It is distinguishable by its very high first dorsal fin and interdorsal ridge. It is not to be confused with the similarly named sand tiger shark, or Carcharias taurus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blacktip reef shark</span> Species of shark

The blacktip reef shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, which can be easily identified by the prominent black tips on its fins. Among the most abundant sharks inhabiting the tropical coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, this species prefers shallow, inshore waters. Its exposed first dorsal fin is a common sight in the region. The blacktip reef shark is usually found over reef ledges and sandy flats, though it has also been known to enter brackish and freshwater environments. It typically attains a length of 1.6 m (5.2 ft). Like other sharks, the females are larger than the males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whitetip reef shark</span> Species of shark

The whitetip reef shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, and the only member of its genus. A small shark that does not usually exceed 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in length, this species is easily recognizable by its slender body and short but broad head, as well as tubular skin flaps beside the nostrils, oval eyes with vertical pupils, and white-tipped dorsal and caudal fins. One of the most common sharks found on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, the whitetip reef shark occurs as far west as South Africa and as far east as Central America. It is typically found on or near the bottom in clear water, at a depth of 8–40 m (26–131 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ganges shark</span> Species of shark

The Ganges shark is a critically endangered species of requiem shark found in the Ganges River and the Brahmaputra River of India and Bangladesh. It is often confused with the more common bull shark, which also inhabits the Ganges River and is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Ganges shark. The genus is currently considered to contain three recent species; genetic evidence has shown that both the Borneo river shark and Irrawaddy river shark should be regarded as synonyms of the Ganges shark, expanding the range of the species to Pakistan, Myanmar, Borneo, and Java. While the other members of the genus Glyphis occur in coastal marine waters as well as rivers, the Ganges shark is found only in fresh water, making it the world's only exclusively freshwater shark. The species remains poorly known and very rare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky shark</span> Species of shark

The dusky shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, occurring in tropical and warm-temperate continental seas worldwide. A generalist apex predator, the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters, and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m (1,300 ft). Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter, traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers. One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark reaches 4.2 m (14 ft) in length and 347 kg (765 lb) in weight. It has a slender, streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout, long sickle-shaped pectoral fins, ridge between the first and second dorsal fins, and faintly marked fins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blacktip shark</span> Species of shark

The blacktip shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae. It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world, including brackish habitats. Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species, with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range. The blacktip shark has a stout, fusiform body with a pointed snout, long gill slits, and no ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral, dorsal, pelvic, and caudal fins. It usually attains a length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caribbean reef shark</span> Species of shark

The Caribbean reef shark is a species of requiem shark, belonging to the family Carcharhinidae. It is found in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil, and is the most commonly encountered reef shark in the Caribbean Sea. With a robust, streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks, this species is difficult to tell apart from other large members of its family such as the dusky shark and the silky shark. Distinguishing characteristics include dusky-colored fins without prominent markings, a short free rear tip on the second dorsal fin, and tooth shape and number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Speartooth shark</span> Species of shark

The speartooth shark is a rare species of river shark, belonging to the family Carcharhinidae. It inhabits coastal marine waters and tidal reaches of large tropical rivers in northern Australia and New Guinea. Despite being a member of the river shark genus, it is also found in near-shore marine waters, favoring highly turbid environments over a wide range of salinities. This robustly built, gray-colored shark is characterized by a short and broad snout, tiny eyes, a relatively large second dorsal fin, and a black blotch beneath each pectoral fin near the tip. Another identifying trait is its teeth, which are large, triangular, and serrated in the upper jaw and narrow, spear-like, and serrated only near the tips in the lower jaw. Adults grow to about 2.6 m (8.5 ft) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Graceful shark</span> Species of shark

The graceful shark or Queensland shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the tropical Indo-Pacific, from the Gulf of Aden to northern Australia. It is a midwater species that has been recorded to a depth of 50 m (160 ft). A stoutly built shark growing up to 1.7 m (5.6 ft) long, the graceful shark has a short, wedge-shaped snout, large, sickle-shaped pectoral fins and first dorsal fin, and black tips on most fins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Creek whaler</span> Species of shark

The creek whaler is a common species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, endemic to northern Australia. It frequents shallow waters close to shore, including estuaries. This small, stocky shark usually grows to 1.0–1.3 m (3.3–4.3 ft) long and is brownish in color without conspicuous fin markings. It can be identified by its long snout, large, triangular pectoral fins, and large, anteriorly positioned first dorsal fin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinner shark</span> Species of shark

The spinner shark is a type of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, named for the spinning leaps it makes as a part of its feeding strategy. This species occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide, except for in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is found from coastal to offshore habitats to a depth of 100 m (330 ft), though it prefers shallow water. The spinner shark resembles a larger version of the blacktip shark, with a slender body, long snout, and black-marked fins. This species can be distinguished from the blacktip shark by the first dorsal fin, which has a different shape and is placed further back, and by the black tip on the anal fin. It attains a maximum length of 3 m (9.8 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nervous shark</span> Species of shark

The nervous shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, so named because of its timid behavior in regard to humans. It is common in shallow, coastal waters off northern Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. A small brownish or grayish shark typically measuring 1.0–1.3 m (3.3–4.3 ft) long, this species has a short, blunt snout, oval eyes, and a relatively large second dorsal fin. The leading margins of most fins are finely edged with black, and the lower caudal fin lobe is black-tipped.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smoothtooth blacktip shark</span> Species of shark

The smoothtooth blacktip shark is a species of requiem shark in the family Carcharhinidae. It is known only from the type specimen caught from the Gulf of Aden, off eastern Yemen, and a handful of additional specimens caught from the Persian Gulf, off Kuwait. Reaching 1.3 m (4.3 ft) in length, this species has a stocky greenish-colored body, a short snout, and black-tipped fins. It can be distinguished from similar species by its teeth, which are narrow, erect, and smooth-edged.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spot-tail shark</span> Species of shark

The spot-tail shark, or sorrah shark, is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the tropical Indo-West Pacific Ocean between latitudes 31°N and 31°S from the surface to a depth around 72 m (236 ft). This shark grows to about 1.6 m. It is fished commercially over much of its range and the IUCN considers it to be near threatened.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian blacktip shark</span> Species of shark

The Australian blacktip shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, endemic to northern and eastern Australia. Favoring the upper and middle parts of the water column, it can be found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 50 m (160 ft). Appearance-wise this species is virtually identical to the common blacktip shark, from which it can be reliably distinguished only by its lower vertebra number and by genetic markers. Generally reaching 1.5–1.8 m (4.9–5.9 ft) in length, it is a fairly stout-bodied, bronze-colored shark with a long snout and black-tipped fins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern river shark</span> Species of shark

The northern river shark or New Guinea river shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in scattered tidal rivers and associated coastal waters in northern Australia and in Papua New Guinea. This species inhabits areas with poor visibility, soft bottoms, and large tides, with immature sharks ranging into fresh and brackish water. It is similar to other river sharks in having a stocky grey body with a high back, tiny eyes, and broad fins. It measures up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long.

<i>Carcharias</i> Genus of sharks

Carcharias is a genus of mackerel sharks belonging to the family Odontaspididae. Once bearing many prehistoric species, all have gone extinct with the exception of the critically endangered sand tiger shark.

References

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  11. ↑ McKay, R.J.; Beinssen, K. (1988). "Albinism in the pigeye whaler shark Carcharhinus amboinensis Mueller and Henle from Queensland Australia". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 25 (2): 463–464.
  12. ↑ De Maddalena, A.; Della Rovere, G. (2005). "First record of the pigeye shark, Carcharhinus amboinensis (Müller & Henle, 1839), in the Mediterranean Sea" (PDF). Annales Series Historia Naturalis. 15 (2): 209–212.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Cliff, G.; Dudley, S.F.J. (1991). "Sharks caught in the protective gill nets off Natal, South Africa. 5. The Java shark Carcharhinus amboinensis (Müller & Henle)". South African Journal of Marine Science. Suppl. 11 (1): 443–453. doi: 10.2989/025776191784287817 .
  14. 1 2 Knip, D.M.; Heupel, M.R.; Simpfendorfer, C.A.; Tobin, A.J.; Moloney, J. (2011). "Ontogenetic shifts in movement and habitat use of juvenile pigeye sharks Carcharhinus amboinensis in a tropical nearshore region". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 425: 233–246. Bibcode:2011MEPS..425..233K. doi: 10.3354/meps09006 .
  15. ↑ Knip, D.M.; Heupel, M.R.; Simpfendorfer, C.A.; Tobin, A.J.; Moloney, J. (2011). "Wet-season effects on the distribution of juvenile pigeye sharks, Carcharhinus amboinensis, in tropical nearshore waters". Marine and Freshwater Research. 62 (6): 658–667. doi: 10.1071/MF10136 .
  16. ↑ Gleeson, R.J.; Bennett, M.B.; Adlard, R.D. (2010). "First taxonomic description of multivalvulidan myxosporean parasites from elasmobranchs: Kudoa hemiscylli n.sp. and Kudoa carcharhini n.sp. (Myxosporea: Multivalvulidae)". Parasitology. 137 (13): 1885–1898. doi:10.1017/S0031182010000855. PMID   20619061. S2CID   25023218.
  17. ↑ Henderson, A.C.; Reeve, A.J.; Tang, D. (2013). "Parasitic copepods from some northern Indian Ocean elasmobranchs". Marine Biodiversity Records. 6: e44. doi:10.1017/S1755267213000195.
  18. 1 2 Olson, P.D.; Caira, J.N.; Jensen, K.; Overstreet, R.M.; Palm, H.W.; Beveridge, I. (2010). "Evolution of the trypanorhynch tapeworms: parasite phylogeny supports independent lineages of sharks and rays". International Journal for Parasitology. 40 (2): 223–242. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.07.012. PMID   19761769.
  19. ↑ Caira, J.N.; Mega, J.; Ruhnke, T.R. (2005). "An unusual blood sequestering tapeworm (Sanguilevator yearsleyi n. gen., n. sp.) from Borneo with description of Cathetocephalus resendezi n. sp from Mexico and molecular support for the recognition of the order Cathetocephalidea (Platyhelminthes: Eucestoda)". International Journal for Parasitology. 35 (10): 1135–1152. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.03.014. PMID   16019004.
  20. ↑ Campbell, R.A.; Beveridge, I. (1987). "Floriceps minacanthus sp. nov. (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) from Australian fishes" (PDF). Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia. 111 (3–4): 189–194. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-15.
  21. ↑ Palm, H.W.; Beveridge, I. (2002). "Tentaculariid cestodes of the order Trypanorhyncha (Platyhelminthes) from the Australian region". Records of the South Australian Museum. 35 (1): 49–78.
  22. ↑ Schaeffner, B.C.; Beveridge, I. (2013). "Redescriptions and new records of species of Otobothrium Linton, 1890 (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha)". Systematic Parasitology. 84 (1): 17–55. doi:10.1007/s11230-012-9388-1. hdl: 11343/282767 . PMID   23263940. S2CID   18892377.
  23. ↑ Knip, D.M.; Heupel, M.R.; Simpfendorfer, C.A. (2012). "Mortality rates for two shark species occupying a shared coastal environment". Fisheries Research. 125–126: 184–189. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2012.02.023.
  24. ↑ Kinney, M.J.; Hussey, N.E.; Fisk, A.T.; Tobin, A.J.; Simpfendorfer, C.A. (2011). "Communal or competitive? Stable isotope analysis provides evidence of resource partitioning within a communal shark nursery". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 439: 263–276. Bibcode:2011MEPS..439..263K. doi: 10.3354/meps09327 .
  25. 1 2 Stevens, J.D.; McLoughlin, K.J. (1991). "Distribution, size and sex composition, reproductive biology and diet of sharks from northern Australia". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 42 (2): 151–199. doi:10.1071/MF9910151.
  26. ↑ Knip, D.M.; Heupel, M.R.; Simpfendorfer, C.A. (2012). "Evaluating marine protected areas for the conservation of tropical coastal sharks". Biological Conservation. 148 (1): 200–209. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.01.008.
  27. ↑ Tillett, B.J.; Meekan, M.G.; Parry, D.; Munksgaard, N.; Field, I.C.; Thorburn, D.; Bradshaw, C.J. (2011). "Decoding fingerprints: elemental composition of vertebrae correlates to age-related habitat use in two morphologically similar sharks". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 434: 133–142. Bibcode:2011MEPS..434..133T. doi: 10.3354/meps09222 .
  28. ↑ Tillett, B.J.; Meekan, M.G.; Field, I.C.; Hua, Q.; Bradshaw, C.J.A. (2011). "Similar life history traits in bull (Carcharhinus leucas) and pig-eye (C. amboinensis) sharks". Marine and Freshwater Research. 62 (7): 850–860. doi:10.1071/MF10271.
  29. ↑ Habermehl, G.G.; Krebs, H.C.; Rasoanaivo, P.; Ramialiharisoa, A. (1994). "Severe ciguatera poisoning in Madagascar — a case-report". Toxicon. 32 (12): 1539–1542. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90312-3. PMID   7725322.
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