SS D. M. Clemson (1903)

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D.M. Clemson.jpg
History
Flag of the United States (1908-1912).svg United States
NameD. M. Clemson
NamesakeDaniel M. Clemson
OperatorProvident Steamship Company
Port of registry Duluth, Minnesota
Ordered22 July 1902
Builder Superior Shipbuilding Company, West Superior, Wisconsin
Cost$315,000 ($8.8 million in 2024) [a]
Yard number510
Launched3 July 1903
Maiden voyage13 August 1903
Out of service30 November 1908
IdentificationUS official number  157703
FateSank in a storm on Lake Superior
General characteristics
Class & type Lake freighter
Sister ship(s)
D. G. Kerr
James H. Reed
Tonnage
Tons burthen17,000
Length
Beam52 feet (15.8 m)
Depth28 feet (8.5 m)
Installed power
Propulsion1 × propeller
Speed12 knots (13.8  mph)
Capacity7,800 long tons (7,925  t) [b]
Crew24

SS D. M. Clemson was an American lake freighter in service between 1903 and 1908. She was built by the Superior Shipbuilding Company in West Superior, Wisconsin, for the Provident Steamship Company of Duluth, Minnesota, managed by Augustus B. Wolvin. She was engaged in the iron ore, coal and grain trade, breaking various haulage quantity records on multiple occasions. She was involved in a number of serious accidents, almost sinking in a storm on Lake Superior in September 1905, as well as a collision with the piers of the Ashtabula Harbor Light just a few weeks prior to her loss.

Contents

On what was her final voyage of the year, D. M. Clemson locked through the Soo Locks into Lake Superior on the morning of 30 November 1908, with a cargo of coal loaded two days prior in Lorain, Ohio, consigned to Duluth. She was under the command of Captain Samuel R. Chamberlain, who was scheduled to retire after D. M. Clemson's trip ended. Chamberlain chose to take his vessel on the southernmost route to Duluth, which required passage through the Portage Canal. She was accompanied by the freighter J. J. H. Brown until Whitefish Point, when the latter altered course for the north shore of the lake. J. J. H. Brown was the final vessel to verifiably encounter D. M. Clemson. Shortly thereafter, an unusually powerful snow storm descended on Lake Superior, sinking D. M. Clemson, and killing her entire crew of 24.

Within a few days, wreckage was discovered floating in Lake Superior, and on its shores. Initially believed to be from a different freighter, the discovery of several different pieces of wreckage bearing a legible name and the confirmation she was the only missing vessel on the lake conclusively identified D. M. Clemson as the source. Contemporary sources speculated she was lost shortly after entering the storm. Her loss has been attributed to structural or mechanical failure, or the loss of her hatch covers.

Despite repeated searches by the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society, the wreck of D. M. Clemson has never been found. She has been the largest undiscovered shipwreck on the Great Lakes since May 2025.

History

Background

The gunship USS Michigan became the first iron-hulled vessel built on the Great Lakes, upon her completion in 1843, in Erie, Pennsylvania. [2] By the mid–1840s, Canadian companies had begun to import iron vessels prefabricated in the United Kingdom. [3] The first iron–hulled merchant vessel built on the lakes, Merchant, was built in 1862, in Buffalo, New York. [2] Despite Merchant's clear success proving the potential of iron hulls, ships built from wood remained preferable until the 1880s, due to their lower cost and the abundance of high quality timber. [4] That same decade, shipyards around the Great Lakes began to construct iron ships on a relatively large scale. [5] The most notable being the freighter Onoko, built by the Globe Iron Works Company, which became the largest vessel on the lakes upon her launch in 1882. [6] In 1884, the first steel freighters were built on the Great Lakes. [7] Within a decade of the first examples arriving, the majority of new ships built on the lakes were steel–hulled. [8] The development of the pneumatic rivet gun and the advancement of gantry cranes enabled shipyard employees to work at an increased speed, with greater efficiency. [9] This, combined with the rapidly decreasing steel prices, contributed to the rapid increase in the size of lake freighters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [10] The first 400-foot (121.9 m) freighter was built in 1895, the first 500-foot (152.4 m) freighter arrived on the scene five years later. [11]

Throughout the 1880s, the iron ore trade on the Great Lakes grew significantly, primarily due to the increasing size of the lake freighters, and the rise in the number of trips they made to the ore docks of Lake Superior. [12] As the railways were unable to keep up with the rapid production of iron ore, bulk freighters became integral to the region's iron ore industry. [12] By 1890, 56.95% of the 16,036,043 long tons (16,293,372  t ) of the iron ore produced by mines in the United States was sourced from the region surrounding Lake Superior. [12] Freighters engaged in the iron ore trade frequently carried coal on upbound voyages to fuel mining equipment and infrastructure, while hauling ore when downbound. [13]

Augustus B. Wolvin was a prominent businessman within the Great Lakes shipping industry, based in Duluth, Minnesota. [14] His first business venture began with a marine insurance agency, founded in 1889. [15] In 1895, Wolvin became the president and manager of the Zenith Transportation Company, with the freighter Zenith City marking his first shipbuilding venture that same year. [16] He was appointed general manager of the newly assembled fleet of vessels belonging to the United States Steel Corporation's subsidiary, the Pittsburgh Steamship Company, in 1901. [17] Shortly thereafter, Wolvin founded the Provident Steamship Company in Duluth, commissioning four large vessels for his new venture. [c] [19] The contract for two of the vessels was awarded to the American Ship Building Company's yard in West Superior, Wisconsin, on 2 July 1902, following the completion of James H. Hoyt. [20]

Design and construction

D. M. Clemson (US official number  157703) was built by the Superior Shipbuilding Company in West Superior, as yard number 510, costing $315,000 (equivalent to $8.8 million in 2024 [a] ). [d] [22] She was named after Daniel M. Clemson, the president of the Pittsburgh Steamship Company, although her prospective name was erroneously reported by the Detroit Free Press as D. K. Clemson. [23] The original date for the launching was reported as 1 June, later revised to 27 June, with local newspapers advertising a substantial christening gala. [24] However, the event experienced delays. [25] Although customary to launch lake freighters on Saturdays, D. M. Clemson was launched on a Friday, between 16:00 and 16:30 on 3 July 1903, without a formal christening ceremony, at the behest of Wolvin. [26] Inclement weather resulted in sparse attendance. [27] D. M. Clemson and her sister ships, D. G. Kerr and James H. Reed, were among the largest vessels on the Great Lakes in 1903, with the former being built alongside D. M. Clemson in West Superior. [28]

She was built on the channel system, a longitudinal frame style introduced on the Great Lakes in the mid–1890s. [29] It constituted several rows of flanged steel plates running the entire length of a vessel's bottom, deriving its name from the "channels" between the frames. [30] This method provided vessels with additional strength, as well as preventing damage sustained in groundings from spreading to other areas of the hull, and increasing cargo capacity. [31] In spite of rapid advances in shipbuilding technology, the hold of D. M. Clemson remained reminiscent of those found on wooden lake freighters. Between 1882 and 1904, the cargo holds of all iron and steel freighters contained stanchions and steel angles which were the equivalent of the knees used on earlier wooden freighters. [32] The stanchions within her hull, which supported her deck, were located 12 feet (3.7 m) apart, at the spaces between D. M. Clemson's 25 hatches, which were 9 feet (2.7 m) in depth. [e] [34] Her hull contained three watertight bulkheads. [35] The cargo hold was divided into six separate compartments, the first of which was 1,600 long tons (1,626 t) in capacity; the second, third, fourth, and fifth were 1,100 long tons (1,118 t), while the sixth was 1,300 long tons (1,321 t). Her overall capacity was listed as 7,800 long tons (7,925 t). [b] [f] [37] She was flush–decked, meaning she lacked a deckhouse astern, with her crew's accommodations located below decks. [38]

The hull of D. M. Clemson had an overall length of 468 feet (142.6  m ), a length between perpendiculars of 448 feet (136.6 m), as well as a beam 52 feet (15.8 m) in width. [39] The moulded depth, roughly speaking, the vertical height of D. M. Clemson's hull, was 28 feet (8.5 m). [40] The measurements of her register tonnage were calculated as 5,531 gross register tons and 3,991 net register tons, respectively. [41] Additionally, she was listed as 17,000 tons burthen. [42] Maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse describes her as the "[r]epresenting the highest state of the shipbuilders' art". [43] The Duluth News Tribune lauded D. M. Clemson's size, referring to her as a "[m]onster freighter". [44]

She was powered by a 1,370  ihp (1,020  kW ) 90 rpm quadruple expansion steam engine; the cylinders of the engine were 15 inches (38.1  cm ), 23.75 inches (60.3 cm), 36.5 inches (92.7 cm) and 56 inches (142.2 cm) in diameter, and had a stroke of 40 inches (101.6 cm). [g] [46] Steam was provided by two water-tube boilers 13 feet 6 inches (4.1 m) in diameter, 12 feet 2 inches (3.7 m) in length, with a working pressure of 250- pound-per-square-inch (1,700  kPa ). The boilers were each fitted with four furnaces, accounting for a combined grate surface of 128 square feet (11.9  m2 ), and a total heating surface of 5,000 square feet (464.5 m2). The engine was manufactured by the shipyard in West Superior, while the boilers were supplied by Babcock & Wilcox of New York City. [35] D. M. Clemson's machinery enabled her to reach 12 knots (13.8  mph ). [45]

Service history

D. M. Clemson in the Soo Locks D.M. Clemson (1903).jpg
D. M. Clemson in the Soo Locks

D. M. Clemson was the final vessel in the Provident Steamship Company's fleet of four to be completed and enter service, after James H. Hoyt, D. G. Kerr, and James H. Reed, respectively. [47] Her home port was Duluth. [35]

On 13 August 1903, D. M. Clemson began her maiden voyage for Lake Erie under the command of Captain Frank Rae, after loading 7,725 long tons (7,849 t) of iron ore at the Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway's ore dock in Duluth, beating the previous haulage record set by the freighter William Edenborn. [h] [49] The cargo gave her a draught of 18 feet 9 inches (571.5 cm). [44] She locked down through the Soo Locks on 16 August, at 12:20, and passed Detroit, Michigan, on 18 August, at 09:00. [50] D. M. Clemson arrived in Conneaut, Ohio, on 20 August. [51] Rae became embroiled in a labour dispute in September, due to his refusal to join the Masters' & Pilots' Association, and employing his father, another non–union member, as a mate. [52] His actions resulted in a widespread strike, which saw multiple vessels of the Pittsburgh Steamship Company idling in port. [53] He was relieved of command in October. [54]

While attempting to enter Conneaut, on 26 October 1903, D. M. Clemson ran aground on a mud bar at the harbour entrance. Contemporary accounts attributed the bar's formation to the removal of the harbour's piers in preparation for their replacement. [55] After a considerable effort, she was removed ten hours after grounding. [56] The bar was dredged shortly thereafter. [57] Less than a month later, she took on 336,365 bushels of barley, weighing 8,072 long tons (8,202 t), at Duluth's Cargill Commission on 20 November 1903, setting a new record for the largest cargo of grain loaded at a port on Lake Superior. [58] The barley was destined for Buffalo. [59]

D. M. Clemson broke the record for a coal cargo with a 8,200 long tons (8,332 t) load of bituminous coal, which she discharged at Duluth on 22 June 1904. [60] She broke another record a month later, on 22 July, after loading 8,441 long tons (8,576 t) and 1,750 pounds (793.8  kg ) of soft coal destined for Superior, Wisconsin, at the Hocking dock in Toledo, Ohio, the largest cargo of that type loaded at the port. [i] [62] On 12 August 1904, she stranded in the Menominee River, while laden with anthracite coal. [63] She was freed at night the following day, after 350 long tons (356 t) of her cargo was removed, receiving no damage from the grounding. [64]

During the end of 1905, D. M. Clemson almost sank. [65] At 02:00 on 2 September, she left Duluth, laden with iron ore bound for South Chicago, Illinois. [66] As she proceeded across Lake Superior, weather conditions began to deteriorate. D. M. Clemson eventually encountered the full force of the storm, which The Cleveland Leader described as "unsurpassed". [67] Waves boarded her decks, smashing in two of the hatch covers. The water which entered her hold caused her cargo to shift. [66] Captain Samuel R. Chamberlain decided to turn her around, arriving in Two Harbors, Minnesota, several hours later. She had a 4-foot (1.2 m) list to starboard, with little freeboard. [67] In addition to the broken hatches, she also lost several railings, and sustained other damage. [68]

She was placed in dry dock in Superior, in mid–September 1905, to repair damage to her bottom caused by ice earlier that year. Repairs were not deemed to be of the utmost importance, leading to their delay. [69] Thirteen of her plates were replaced. [70] On the night of 26 September, D. M. Clemson ran aground opposite the Minnesota ore docks in the Buffalo River due to low water levels, while underway to unload her cargo of iron ore. [71] She was drawing 19 feet (5.8 m) of water at the time. [72] Although the tug Delta succeeded in freeing her, she grounded again while turning around. The wrecking tug Saginaw was dispatched to assist, but failed to free her. [73] On the morning of 27 September, increased water levels allowed her to float free, and subsequently unload her cargo at the ore dock. [74]

Upbound with coal on 13 April 1906, D. M. Clemson ran aground on Bar Point, on Lake Erie, remaining there for several hours. She was eventually freed and allowed to continue her journey, having sustained no visible damage. [75]

At 07:00 on 20 June 1907, while downbound and laden with iron ore, D. M. Clemson collided with the upbound whaleback James B. Neilson in heavy fog off Middle Island on Lake Huron. [76] D. M. Clemson was struck on her port side, immediately forward of her coal bunkers. Despite receiving considerable damage, she proceeded on her way, her captain reporting the collision at Port Huron, Michigan, at 22:15 later that day. [77]

On the night of 20 October 1908, D. M. Clemson was bound from Conneaut, for Ashtabula, Ohio, to load coal. [78] While attempting to enter the latter port, a strong current drove her against the pier of the Ashtabula Harbor Light, damaging ten hull plates above the turn of her bilge, as well as the first water tank on her starboard side. [79] Her impact with the pier knocked it 4 inches (10.2 cm) out of line. [80] As the damage sustained was above the waterline, D. M. Clemson received temporary repairs in Astabula, before leaving on a voyage for Lake Superior. [81] On October 24, while upbound with coal, she ran aground on Point Pelee, due to smoke from a forest fires obscuring visibility. [82] She was freed later that day, continuing her voyage, receiving no noticeable damage. [83]

Samuel R. Chamberlain Samuel R. Chamberlain.jpg
Samuel R. Chamberlain

After loading 8,000 long tons (8,128 t) iron ore consigned to Ashtabula, in Duluth, on 20 November 1908, D. M. Clemson encountered a fierce storm on Lake Superior. [j] [85] A following sea broke over her stern, flooding the crew's aft quarters, smashing the engine room skylights, and buckling cabin doors. [86] Chamberlain altered course to avoid flooding D. M. Clemson's engine. The following morning, green seas, combined with a sharp drop in temperature resulted in a thick layer of ice coating D. M. Clemson's decks. She struggled against the storm for two days, until it dissipated, allowing her to continue her journey to the Soo Locks. [86] Despite the severity of the storm, she sustained no obvious structural damage. [87] Her crew repaired the damaged fittings. [86] Albeit delayed, she arrived in Ashtabula on 24 November, and unloaded her cargo. [88]

Final voyage

Weather map for 30 November 1908 30 November 1908.jpg
Weather map for 30 November 1908

On the night of 27 November, D. M. Clemson departed Ashtabula for Lorain, Ohio, arriving at the latter that day. [89] As two deckhands had quit their positions upon arriving in Lorain, two local men were hurriedly hired as replacements. [90]

D. M. Clemson departed Lorain, on 28 November, with a cargo of coal destined for Duluth, where she was scheduled to enter layup upon the completion of her voyage. [91] Chamberlain, who was scheduled to retire at the end of the shipping season, was in command. [87] D. M. Clemson passed Detroit, at 16:45 that same day. [92] She locked up into Lake Superior on Canadian side of the Soo Locks at 09:30 on 30 November, and was scheduled to arrive in Duluth later that night. [k] [94] She left the locks in the company of the freighter J. J. H. Brown, and sailed northwest across Whitefish Bay. [95] The two vessels parted ways in the vicinity of Whitefish Point, with Chamberlain electing to take the south shore route to Duluth, which required passage through the Portage Canal. [96] J. J. H. Brown altered course to the north, a route which offered better protection against heavy weather. [96] Shortly thereafter, a powerful snow storm with 50 to 65 miles per hour (80.5 to 104.6 km/h) winds swept Lake Superior. [97] Captain Frank D. Chamberlain of J. J. H. Brown, whose vessel was struck by the storm approximately 75 miles (120.7 km) after leaving D. M. Clemson, described the storm to The Duluth News Tribune. [98]

It was the worst gale I ever went into. Every swell would seem ready to swamp us. Time after time the swells would break completely over the boat. Tuesday I had to shut down my engines and we drifted for 12 hours. After the gale blew itself out there was heavy snowfall and it was impossible to see any distance ahead. [99]

An unconfirmed sighting of D. M. Clemson was reported by the captain of the Algoma Central Steamship Company freighter Paliki, who claimed to have spotted her in heavy snow, west of Whitefish Point. This sighting would have been the final time she was seen afloat. [65] Paliki's captain estimated that D. M. Clemson would have passed Vermilion Point three to four hours after their purported encounter, around the time the snowfall intensified dramatically. [100]

Aftermath

The crew of the turret deck ship Turret Court and the package freighter Wasaga reported sighting a pilothouse and several hatch covers floating off Crisp Point on 4 December. [101] Several other vessels encountered floating wreckage in the vicinity of Crisp Point that same day, including the canaller Algonquin, lumber hooker C. F. Curtis, and freighter Thomas Barlum, the latter of which reported passing through a field of mahogany debris. [102] The crew of the freighter J. H. Bartow also reported spotting several floating life jackets. [103]

Initially, the debris was linked to the wooden freighter Tampa, which had been reported overdue in Fort William, Ontario. [104] The hatch covers discovered were painted red, matching those of Tampa. [103] Additionally, she was fitted with mahogany furnishings, corresponding to the wreckage discovered by Thomas Barlum. [105] Downbound vessels were questioned in an effort to identify the wreckage. [105] However, Tampa arrived in Fort William, at 14:30 on 5 December, without any apparent damage, after sheltering behind the Keweenaw Peninsula. [93]

Despite growing concern among mariners, search parties only arrived on the scene several days after D. M. Clemson's last sighting. Wolvin maintained her safety, reporting her to be in shelter behind Grand Island. [106] This was disproved once the freighter D. O. Mills was identified as the vessel in the lee of Grand Island. [107] That same day, the tugs Sabine and Schenck were dispatched from the Soo Locks. [108] Schenck searched the area around Whitefish Point, while Sabine travelled along the south shore to Grand Marais, Michigan, then to Michipicoten Island, before returning to the Soo. [109] The tugs James Whalen and H. F. Bowman patrolled the Canadian shore between Thunder Bay and Michipicoten Island. [109] The tug Harrison left Duluth, scouting the area between Isle Royale, the Keweenaw Peninsula, and Stannard Rock. With the exception of Schenck, which recovered two hatch covers, the search parties found nothing. [109] On 6 December, life savers recovered 23 hatch covers on the beach near the Two Hearted River. [109]

On 7 December, the freighter Dundee passed through a floating debris field, identified by her captain as coming from D. M. Clemson. [110] By 8 December, 30 hatch covers had been recovered between Crisp Point and Vermilion Point. [111] Later that day, the freighter William H. Gratwick, towing the barge No. 86, reported sighting several pieces of floating wreckage, which appeared to be hatch covers. [111] By 9 December, the entire shoreline between Grand Marais, and Whitefish Point had become littered with debris. [112] That day, parts of D. M. Clemson's cabin were discovered ashore near Grand Marais. [112] Later on 9 December, at 22:30, the freighter Frank T. Heffelfinger returned to Duluth after patrolling the lake around Caribou Island, as well as areas around Michipicoten Island and Isle Royale, without finding any trace of D. M. Clemson. [112]

D. M. Clemson's loss was substantiated on 10 December, when a search party discovered a cork life jacket and a water barrel in the vicinity of Crisp Point, both stencilled with her name. [113] Joseph S. Hayes, the superintendent of the Provident Steamship Company, confirmed the identity of the wreckage. He had arrived in Grand Marais, two days earlier, to organise the search parties. [113] Frederick B. Wells, another Wolvin–owned freighter, recovered two hatch further covers on 12 December. The hatches of Frederick B. Wells and D. M. Clemson were identical in size, further verifying the latter as the source of the wreckage. [114] Other pieces of wreckage, including a red pail rack, were recovered. [115] One piece of wreckage bore signs of an explosion. [116]

The first body of D. M. Clemson's complement of 24 was discovered by a member of the life saving service on the shores of Crisp Point. [117] Although the life saver attempted to recover the body, the rope attached to the life jacket snapped, leading to the body sinking into the lake. [118] By 17 December, one body had been recovered by life savers at Crisp Point. [119] It was identified as Second Mate Charles Woods of Marine City, Michigan. [120] Reports of two further bodies proved false. [l] [123]

D. M. Clemson was a $330,000 ($9.22 million in 2024 [a] ) property loss. [124]

Theories

The definitive cause of D. M. Clemson's sinking remains a mystery, and has been subject to much speculation, becoming one of the most widely–discussed mysteries of Lake Superior. [125] A report by the Detroit Free Press on 9 December 1908, highlighted a possible cause of D. M. Clemson's sinking, speculating that waves had loosened her hatch covers, causing water to enter the hold. [111] A piece by published by The Duluth News Tribune two days later claims she presumably sank shortly after entering the storm, and proposes her owners' theory that she was lost as a result of a mechanical failure, related to either her engine or rudder. [113] The possibility of D. M. Clemson breaking two was also hypothesised. [111]

Dr. Julius F. Wolff Jr., Professor for Political Science at the University of Minnesota Duluth covered the loss of D. M. Clemson in a 1972 issue of Inland Seas. [126] He attributes her loss to a number of possible factors: she may have fallen into the trough between waves and capsized, the temporary repairs to her hull may have failed, her hatch covers possibly blew off, she suffered a boiler explosion, or the grounding at Point Pelee potentially damaged her hull enough for her to break in half under the strain of the storm. [124]

In his 1984 book Went Missing, maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse theorises D. M. Clemson likely sank as a result of structural damage incurred during her collision with the lighthouse pier in Ashtabula, possibly with her grounding on Point Pelee acting as a contributing factor, leading her to break in two and sink rapidly. [127] He also posits inconspicuous damage sustained during the storm on her penultimate voyage may have weakened her hull, as well as the temporary repairs, making her particularly vulnerable in a storm. [127]

Historian James Donahue, writing for The Times Herald in 1989, ascribes her loss to either the failure of her hatch covers, or catastrophic structural failure, namely breaking in two. [122] He speculates the rush of air caused by the rapid sinking blew the hatch covers free, and attributes the lack of bodies recovered in the aftermath to a sudden and rapid sinking, trapping most of the crew below decks. [122]

In November 1911, D. M. Clemson's sister ship, D. G. Kerr, almost sank in a storm on Lake Superior. [128] She encountered 60 miles per hour (96.6 km/h) winds and large waves, and gradually began to accumulate large quantities of ice on her decks. [128] Eventually, the weight of the ice snapped the whistle and its steam pipe, leading to the rapid escape of steam from D. G. Kerr's machinery. Although her crew were able to repair the steam pipe and alleviate the steam leak, her captain reported the extent of the steam loss as almost significant enough to render her engine inoperable. [128] In an article published in Inland Seas in 2000, historian Al Miller speculates that as D. G. Kerr and D. M. Clemson were identical in design, the latter conceivably fell victim to a similar incident. [128]

Wreck

The wreck of D. M. Clemson has never been found. She became the largest undiscovered shipwreck on the Great Lakes following the discovery of the 550-foot (167.6 m) Canadian freighter James Carruthers in May 2025. [129] The Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society has sought the wreck since at least 2002. [130] While on an expedition to locate her wreck in August 2007, they located the hull of a large freighter 8 miles (12.9 km) north of Deer Park, Michigan, in 460 feet (140.2 m) of water. [131] However, footage taken via remotely operated vehicle identified the wreck as the freighter Cyprus, lost a year before D. M. Clemson. [132]

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 Johnston, Louis & Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 30 November 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
  2. 1 2 Some sources list D. M. Clemson's cargo capacity as 7,500 long tons (7,620 t), 7,000 long tons (7,112 t), or 6,900 long tons (7,011 t) on an 18-foot (5.5 m) draught. [1]
  3. ↑ They were named James H. Hoyt, D. G. Kerr, D. M. Clemson, and James H. Reed. [18]
  4. ↑ One source listed the cost as $350,000 (equivalent to $9.78 million in 2024 [a] ). [21]
  5. ↑ It would not be until 1904 that the traditional construction methods were dispensed with in favour of steel arches and sloped side "hopper" tanks, in the freighter Augustus B. Wolvin. [33]
  6. ↑ Cargo hold figures taken from measurements of D. G. Kerr, D. M. Clemson's identical sister ship. [36]
  7. ↑ The engine's first cylinder was high pressure, the second and third intermediate, and the fourth low. [45]
  8. ↑ One source listed 7,775 long tons (7,900 t) of iron ore. [48]
  9. ↑ One source listed the weight of the cargo as 8,000 long tons (8,128 t). [61]
  10. ↑ One source listed her departure point as Two Harbors. [84]
  11. ↑ The Detroit Free Press estimated her day of arrival as 1 December. [93]
  12. ↑ Stonehouse reportes the discovery of two bodies. The first about 4 miles (6.4 km) east of the Vermilion Point life saving station; the second consisting of incomplete skeletonised remains, discovered on the southwest point of Ile Parisienne in May 1909. [121] Donahue reports the discovery of two bodies, those of Woods, and watchman Simon Dunn, whose body was discovered about 30 miles (48.3 km) west of Whitefish Point, on Crisp Point. [122]

References

  1. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903b), p. 6; The Plain Dealer (1903a), p. 3; The Plain Dealer (1903b), p. 3.
  2. 1 2 Bugbee (1962a), p. 24.
  3. ↑ Bugbee (1962a), p. 25.
  4. ↑ Bowlus (2010), p. 85; Bugbee (1962a), p. 26; Thompson (1994), p. 32.
  5. ↑ Bugbee (1962b), p. 48; Thompson (1994), p. 32.
  6. ↑ Thompson (1994), p. 31.
  7. ↑ Bugbee (1962b), p. 50; Thompson (1994), pp. 40–42.
  8. ↑ Bugbee (1962b), pp. 49–51.
  9. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 65.
  10. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 65; Thompson (1994), pp. 59–84.
  11. ↑ Thompson (1994), pp. 59–84.
  12. 1 2 3 National Park Service (2018), p. 16.
  13. ↑ National Park Service (2018), p. 7.
  14. ↑ Miller (2002), pp. 7–10.
  15. ↑ Miller (2002), p. 10.
  16. ↑ Miller (2002), p. 11.
  17. ↑ Miller (2002), p. 21.
  18. ↑ Miller (2002), p. 22.
  19. ↑ Herriman (1905), p. 41; Miller (2002), p. 22.
  20. ↑ The Cleveland Leader (1902), p. 9; The Duluth News Tribune (1902); The Montreal Star (1902), p. 10.
  21. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1903b), p. 5.
  22. ↑ Bowling Green State University; Detroit Free Press (1903b), p. 9; Herriman (1905), p. 41; The Plain Dealer (1903a), p. 3.
  23. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903a), p. 11; The Marine Review (1903a), p. 26; The Pittsburgh Post (1903), p. 13.
  24. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903a), p. 3; The Duluth News Tribune (1903b), p. 6; The Marine Review (1903b), p. 22.
  25. ↑ The Marine Review (1903c), p. 23.
  26. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903c), p. 8; Toronto Marine Historical Society (1988), p. 7.
  27. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903c), p. 3.
  28. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903b), p. 9; The Duluth News Tribune (1903c), p. 8.
  29. ↑ The Marine Review (1895a), p. 6.
  30. ↑ The Marine Review (1895a), p. 6; The Marine Review (1895b), pp. 20–22.
  31. ↑ The Marine Review (1895b), p. 21.
  32. ↑ Thompson (1994), p. 91.
  33. ↑ Thompson (1994), pp. 90–92.
  34. ↑ Green (1912), p. 107; Thompson (1994), pp. 90–91.
  35. 1 2 3 Herriman (1905), p. 41.
  36. ↑ Green (1912), p. 107; The Duluth News Tribune (1903a), p. 3.
  37. ↑ Green (1912), p. 107.
  38. ↑ Boyer (1966), p. 86; Thompson (1994), p. 90.
  39. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903a), p. 3; The Plain Dealer (1903a), p. 3.
  40. ↑ The Cleveland Leader (1902), p. 5.
  41. ↑ Bowling Green State University; Herriman (1905), p. 41.
  42. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1908f), p. 1.
  43. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 68: "At time of her launching she represented the highest state of the shipbuilders' art".
  44. 1 2 The Duluth News Tribune (1903e), p. 3.
  45. 1 2 The Duluth News Tribune (1903a), p. 3.
  46. ↑ Alpena County George N. Fletcher Public Library; Herriman (1905), p. 41.
  47. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903d), p. 8.
  48. ↑ Minneapolis Daily Times (1903), p. 6.
  49. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903d), p. 7; The Duluth News Tribune (1903e), p. 3; The Plain Dealer (1903d), p. 5.
  50. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903e), p. 7; The Times Herald (1903a), p. 5.
  51. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1903c), p. 5.
  52. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903f), p. 3; The Marine Review (1903d).
  53. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903f), p. 3; The Duluth News Tribune (1903f).
  54. ↑ The Marine Review (1903e), p. 25.
  55. ↑ The Cleveland Leader (1903), p. 9.
  56. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903g), p. 9; The Times Herald (1903b), p. 7.
  57. ↑ The Times Herald (1903b), p. 7.
  58. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1903g), p. 8.
  59. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1903h), p. 10.
  60. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1904), p. 8.
  61. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1904a), p. 7.
  62. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1904a), p. 7; The Marine Review (1904), p. 21.
  63. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1904b), p. 9.
  64. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1904c), p. 6.
  65. 1 2 Stonehouse (1990), p. 71.
  66. 1 2 Detroit Free Press (1905a), p. 3.
  67. 1 2 The Cleveland Leader (1905), p. 1; The Duluth News Tribune (1905a), p. 3.
  68. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1905a), p. 3.
  69. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1905b), p. 7.
  70. ↑ The Times Herald (1905), p. 7.
  71. ↑ Buffalo Courier (1905a), p. 2; Detroit Free Press (1905b), p. 9.
  72. ↑ Buffalo Courier-Express (1905).
  73. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1905b), p. 9.
  74. ↑ Buffalo Courier (1905b), p. 2.
  75. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1906), p. 10.
  76. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1907), p. 9; The Times Herald (1907), p. 11.
  77. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1907), p. 9.
  78. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1908a), p. 7.
  79. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908a), p. 9.
  80. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1908b), p. 7.
  81. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 72; The Duluth News Tribune (1908a), p. 9.
  82. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 72; The Duluth News Tribune (1908b), p. 9; The Plain Dealer (1908c), p. 8.
  83. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908b), p. 9.
  84. ↑ The Plain Dealer (1908d), p. 5.
  85. ↑ Boyer (1966), p. 85; Stonehouse (1990), p. 72.
  86. 1 2 3 Boyer (1966), p. 85.
  87. 1 2 Stonehouse (1990), p. 72.
  88. ↑ Boyer (1966), p. 87; The Plain Dealer (1908d), p. 5.
  89. ↑ Boyer (1966), p. 87; The Plain Dealer (1908e), p. 7.
  90. ↑ Boyer (1966), pp. 88–89.
  91. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908a), p. 23; Stonehouse (1990), pp. 67–72; The Duluth News Tribune (1908d), p. 2.
  92. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908c), p. 14.
  93. 1 2 Detroit Free Press (1908d), p. 1.
  94. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908b), p. 8; Stonehouse (1990), p. 67; The Duluth News Tribune (1908f), p. 7.
  95. ↑ Wolff (1973), p. 268.
  96. 1 2 Stonehouse (1990), pp. 90–91.
  97. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908d), p. 1; Miller (2000), p. 103; Stonehouse (1990), p. 70.
  98. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 71; The Duluth News Tribune (1908h), p. 4.
  99. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908h), p. 4.
  100. ↑ The Times Herald (1908), p. 10.
  101. ↑ Miller (2000), p. 105.
  102. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908c), p. 1; The Duluth News Tribune (1908f), p. 7.
  103. 1 2 Stonehouse (1990), p. 66.
  104. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 66; The Duluth News Tribune (1908e), p. 1.
  105. 1 2 The Duluth News Tribune (1908f), p. 7.
  106. ↑ Miller (2002), p. 26.
  107. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908g), p. 1.
  108. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), p. 67; The Duluth News Tribune (1908g), p. 1.
  109. 1 2 3 4 Stonehouse (1990), p. 67.
  110. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908e), p. 1.
  111. 1 2 3 4 Detroit Free Press (1908f), p. 11.
  112. 1 2 3 The Duluth News Tribune (1908j), p. 1.
  113. 1 2 3 The Duluth News Tribune (1908k), p. 1.
  114. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908l), p. 4.
  115. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908i), p. 1.
  116. ↑ Wolff (1973), pp. 268–269.
  117. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908l), p. 4; The Duluth News Tribune (1908m), p. 14.
  118. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908m), p. 14.
  119. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908n), p. 20.
  120. ↑ Detroit Free Press (1908g), p. 6.
  121. ↑ Stonehouse (1990), pp. 69–70.
  122. 1 2 3 Donahue (1989), p. 16.
  123. ↑ The Duluth News Tribune (1908o), p. 14.
  124. 1 2 Wolff (1972), p. 55.
  125. ↑ Wolff (1972), p. 55; Wolff (1973), p. 269.
  126. ↑ Wolff (1972), p. 53.
  127. 1 2 Stonehouse (1990), p. 73.
  128. 1 2 3 4 Miller (2000), p. 109.
  129. ↑ Baillod (2025); Lofton (2025); Witsil (2025).
  130. ↑ Inland Seas (2002), p. 238.
  131. ↑ Flesher (2007), p. 8; Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (2007).
  132. ↑ Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (2007).

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