Sea mink

Last updated

Sea mink
Temporal range: Late Holocene
Neovison macrodon.png
Palatal aspect of the skull from the type specimen
Status iucn3.1 EX.svg
Extinct  (1894)  (IUCN 3.1) [1]
Status TNC GX.svg
Presumed Extinct  (1894)  (NatureServe) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
Genus: Neogale
Species:
†N. macrodon
Binomial name
†Neogale macrodon
(Prentiss, 1903)
Wpdms nasa topo gulf of maine.jpg
The sea mink was found in the hub Gulf of Maine area.
Synonyms [3] [4]
List
    • †Lutreola vison antiquus
      Loomis, 1911
    • †Mustela macrodon
    • †Mustela vison macrodon
    • †Neovison vison macrodon
    • †Neovison macrodon

The sea mink (Neogale macrodon) is a recently extinct species of mink that lived on the eastern coast of North America around the Gulf of Maine on the New England seaboard. It was most closely related to the American mink (Neogale vison), with continuing debate about whether or not the sea mink should be considered a subspecies of the American mink (as Neogale vison macrodon) or a species of its own. The main justification for a separate species designation is the size difference between the two minks, but other distinctions have been made, such as its redder fur. The only known remains are bone fragments unearthed in Native American shell middens. Its actual size is speculative, based largely on tooth remains.

Contents

The sea mink was first described in 1903, after its extinction; information regarding its external appearance and habits stem from speculation and from accounts made by fur traders and Native Americans. It may have exhibited behavior similar to the American mink, in that it probably maintained home ranges, was polygynandrous, and had a similar diet, though more seaward-oriented. It was probably found on the New England coast and the Maritime Provinces, though its range may have stretched further south during the last glacial period. Conversely, its range may have been restricted solely to the New England coast, specifically the Gulf of Maine, or just to the nearby islands. The largest of the minks, the sea mink was more desirable to fur traders and became extinct in the late 19th or early 20th century.

Taxonomy and etymology

The closely related American mink (Neogale vison) MinkforWiki.jpg
The closely related American mink (Neogale vison)

The sea mink was first described as Lutreola macrodon, distinct from the American mink, by Daniel Webster Prentiss, a medical doctor and ornithologist, in 1903, after it became extinct. Prentiss based his description on skull fragments recovered from Native American shell middens in New England. Most sea mink remains, nearly all of them skull fragments, have come from shell middens, but a complete specimen has never been found. [5] [6]

Debate has occurred regarding whether the sea mink was its own species, or another subspecies of the American mink. Those who argue that the sea mink was a subspecies often refer to it as Neovison vison macrodon. [7] [8] A study in 1911 by Frederic Brewster Loomis, an American paleontologist, concluded that the differences between the American mink and the sea mink were too minute to justify the latter's classification as a separate species, and he named it Lutreola vison antiquus. [9] A study conducted in 2000 by Mead et al. refuted Loomis by claiming that the size range for the largest sea mink specimen was beyond that of the American mink, thereby making it a separate species. [10] But a 2001 study by Graham concluded that this size difference was insufficient evidence to classify the sea mink as its own species and that it should be considered a subspecies. Graham supposed that the size difference was caused by environmental factors. Furthermore, Graham reported that Mead assumed the smaller mink specimens to be the American mink, and the larger mink specimens outside the range of the American mink to be sea minks; this may have been a case of sexual dimorphism wherein all specimens were sea minks, the larger ones being males and the smaller ones being females. [7] A 2007 study compared the dental makeup of the sea mink to the American mink, and concluded that they were distinct enough to be considered two separate species. [5]

New World weasels
Mustelinae
Relations of the sea mink within Mustelinae [11]

The taxonomy of the minks was revised in 2000, resulting in the formation of a new genus, Neovison , which includes only the sea mink and the American mink. Formerly, both minks were classified in the genus Mustela . [12] The species name macrodon translates to "large teeth". [13] According to Richard Manville, a naturalist who maintains that the sea mink is not a separate species, its closest relative is the common mink (N. v. mink), which also inhabits the New England area. [14] A 2021 study into New World weasels found that the sea mink, along with four other extant species, should be classified into a new genus, Neogale. [15]

Fur traders who hunted it gave the sea mink various names, including water marten, red otter, and fisher cat. Possibly the first description of this species was made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in the late 1500s as "a fish like a greyhound", which was a reference to its affinity for the sea and its body shape and gait, which were apparently similar to that of a greyhound. It is possible that the fisher (Pekania pennanti) got its name from being mistakenly identified as the sea mink, which was also known as the fisher by fur traders. [16] The Abenaki Indians referred to it as the "mousebeysoo", which means "wet thing". [14] It was named "sea mink" because it was always found near the coast by fur traders, and subsequently the American mink was often referred to as the "woods mink". [14] [17]

Range

The sea mink was a marine mammal that lived around the rocky coasts of New England and the southernmost Maritime Provinces until it was hunted to extinction in the late 19th or early 20th century. Most sea mink remains are unearthed on the coast of Maine. [18] Though it is speculated that they at one point inhabited Connecticut and Rhode Island, they were commonly trapped along the coast of the Bay of Fundy (in the Gulf of Maine), and it is said that they formerly existed on the southwestern coast of Nova Scotia. [14] There were reports of unusually large mink furs being collected from Nova Scotia regularly. [16] [17] The bones of a specimen unearthed in Middleboro, Massachusetts, were dated to be around 4,300±300 years old, 19 kilometers (12 mi) from salt water. [18] The sea mink may have reached that area by traveling up rivers, or may have been brought there by Native Americans. The latter is most likely, as no other mink remains have been discovered between Casco Bay in Maine and southeastern Massachusetts. [19] Sea mink bones have been unearthed in Canada, although these may have been carried there by Native Americans from the Gulf of Maine. The rugged shorelines of the Down East region of Maine may have represented a northernmost barrier in their range. [18] Mead concluded that only American minks inhabited the mainland and that sea minks were restricted to islands off the coast. If this is the case, then all remains found on the mainland were carried there. [10] Graham challenged that hypothesis, stating that it is unlikely that all sea mink specimens originate from one population. [7]

During the last glacial period, ending 12,000 years ago, the sea mink's range may have extended south of the Gulf of Maine. It may have even evolved there, as Maine at that time would have been covered in glaciers, although the oldest known specimen only dates back to around 5,000 years; this could be due to the rising sea levels—older sea mink remains may be submerged underwater. Alternately, the sea mink may have evolved after the last glacial period and filled a new ecological niche. [5]

Description

Dentition from the upper jaw of the sea mink (left) and the American mink (right) N. macrodon & N. vison dentition.png
Dentition from the upper jaw of the sea mink (left) and the American mink (right)

Since the sea mink has only been described by fragmentary remains, its appearance and behaviors are not well-documented. Its relatives, as well as descriptions by fur traders and Native Americans, give a general idea of this animal's appearance and its ecological roles. Accounts from Native Americans in the New England/Atlantic Canadian regions reported that the sea mink had a fatter body than the American mink. The sea mink produced a distinctive fishy odor, and had fur that was said to be coarser and redder than that of the American mink. [5] [20] [21] It is thought that naturalist Joseph Banks encountered this animal in 1776 in the Strait of Belle Isle, and he described it as being slightly larger than a fox, having long legs, and a tail that was long and tapered toward the end, similar to a greyhound. [16]

The sea mink was the largest of the minks. As only fragmentary skeletal remains of the sea mink exist, most of its external measurements are speculative and rely only on dental measurements. [5] [14] [22] In 1929, Ernest Thompson Seton, a wildlife artist, concluded that the probable dimensions for this animal are 91.4 centimeters (36 in) from head to tail, with the tail being 25.4 centimeters (10 in) long. [23] A possible mounted sea mink specimen collected in 1894 in Connecticut measured 72 centimeters (28 in) from head to tail and the tail was 25.4 centimeters (10 in) in length; a 1966 study found this to be either a large American mink or possibly a hybrid. The specimen was described as having coarse fur that was reddish-tan in color, though much of it was likely faded from age. It was darkest at the tail and the hind limbs, with a 5-by-1.5-centimeter (2 by 0.6 in) white patch between the forearms. There were also white spots on the left forearm and the groin region. [14]

The type specimen was collected by Prentiss and Frederick True, a biologist, in 1897 in Brooklin, Maine, the remains of which consist of a maxilla, parts of the nasal bone, and the palate. The teeth are all present on the right side of the palate, and the left side consists of the incisors and one premolar. Other than a chipped canine, all the teeth are in good condition. The specimen is apparently larger than the Alaskan mink (N. v. nesolestes), as the average distance between the last incisor to the first molar is 2.8 centimeters (1.1 in) in the Alaskan mink, whereas that distance is 3 centimeters (1.2 in) in the type specimen. The nasal bone has an abrupter ascension, and the carnassial teeth make a more acute angle with the gums than those of the common mink (N. v. mink). [6] [14]

These minks were large and heavily built, with a low sagittal crest and short, wide postorbital processes (projections on the frontal bone behind the eye sockets). [14] In fact, the most notable characteristic of the skull was its size, in that it was clearly larger than that of other mink species, having a wide rostrum, large nostril openings, large antorbital foramina (openings in the skull in front of the eye socket), and large teeth. [17] Their large size was probably in response to their coastal environment, as the largest extant subspecies of American mink, the Alaskan mink (N. v. nesolestes), inhabits the Alexander Archipelago in Alaska, an area with a habitat similar to the Gulf of Maine. Mead, concluding that the mink was restricted to nearshore islands, suggested that the large size was due to insular gigantism. [10] Since almost all members of the subfamily Mustelinae exhibit sexual dimorphism, male sea minks were probably larger than female sea minks. The sea mink's wider carnassial teeth and blunter carnassial blades suggest that they crushed hard shells more often than did the teeth of the American mink. [5]

Behavior

The sea mink was an intertidal predator of the Gulf of Maine. Herring Cove (10105704513).jpg
The sea mink was an intertidal predator of the Gulf of Maine.

Although not a truly marine species, being confined to coastal waters, the sea mink was unusually aquatic compared to other members of Musteloidea, being, next to otters, the most aquatic member of the taxon. [5] As marine mammal species often play a large part in their ecosystems, the sea mink could have been an important intertidal predator. It may have had a similar diet to the American mink, consuming seabirds, seabird eggs, and hard-bodied marine invertebrates, though in greater proportions. [5] Its seafood-oriented diet may have increased its size. [7] Remains of toad sculpins and ocean pout were the most common around their dens, and garden banded snails were also reported to have been part of their diet. [14]

According to fur traders, the sea mink was nocturnal and resided in caves and rock crevices during the day. [16] It reportedly made a den with two entrances in the rocks piled up by the waves. [14] Like other minks, individual sea minks may have maintained home ranges, and since the males were larger and required more food, males would have had larger territorial claims. Likewise, their larger size may have allowed the males to target larger prey than the females, and they may have had to defend females during mating seasons. Like other weasels, the sea mink was probably polygynandrous, with both sexes mating with multiple individuals. [5] Due to the overlap of American mink and sea mink ranges, it is possible that they hybridized with each other. [5]

Exploitation and extinction

A shell midden in Maine Whaleback Shell Midden gully - 20070722 07986.JPG
A shell midden in Maine

The sea mink was pursued by fur traders due to its large size; this made it more desirable than other mink species further inland. The unregulated fur trade eventually led to its extinction, which is thought to have occurred between 1860 and 1920. [16] [18] The sea mink was seldom sighted after 1860. The last two recorded kills of a sea mink were made in Maine in 1880 near Jonesport, Maine, and Campobello Island, New Brunswick, in 1894, [16] although the 1894 kill is speculated to be of large American minks. [14] Fur traders made traps to catch sea minks and also pursued them with dogs, although they were rarely trapped. If a sea mink escaped into a small hole on the rocky ledges, it was dug out by hunters using shovels and crowbars. If it was out of reach of the hunters, it was shot and then retrieved using an iron rod with a screw on the far end. If it was hiding, it was smoked out and suffocated. [14] [17] [21] The minks' nocturnal behavior may have been caused from pressure by fur traders who hunted them in daylight. [16]

Since the remains of brain cases found in shell middens are broken and many of the bones found exhibit cut marks, it is assumed that the sea mink was hunted by Native Americans for food, and possibly for exchange and ceremonial purposes. [9] [14] [18] One study looking at the remains in shell middens in Penobscot Bay reported that sea mink craniums were intact, more so than that of other animals found, implying that they were specifically placed there. [24] Males were more often collected than females. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carnivora</span> Order of mammals

Carnivora is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the sixth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species on every major landmass and in a variety of habitats, ranging from the cold polar regions of Earth to the hyper-arid region of the Sahara Desert and the open seas. Carnivorans exhibit a wide array of body plans, varying greatly in size and shape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mustelidae</span> Family of mammals

The Mustelidae are a diverse family of carnivoran mammals, including weasels, badgers, otters, polecats, martens, grisons, and wolverines. Otherwise known as mustelids, they form the largest family in the suborder Caniformia of the order Carnivora with about 66 to 70 species in nine subfamilies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weasel</span> Mammal of the mustelid family

Weasels are mammals of the genus Mustela of the family Mustelidae. The genus Mustela includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets, and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender bodies and short legs. The family Mustelidae, or mustelids, is often referred to as the "weasel family". In the UK, the term "weasel" usually refers to the smallest species, the least weasel (M. nivalis), the smallest carnivoran species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoat</span> Species of mammal

The stoat, also known as the Eurasian ermine or ermine, is a species of mustelid native to Eurasia and the northern regions of North America. Because of its wide circumpolar distribution, it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. The name ermine is used especially in its pure white winter coat of the stoat or its fur. Ermine fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It has long been used on the ceremonial robes of members of the United Kingdom House of Lords. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mink</span> Mammal in the family Mustelidae

Mink are dark-colored, semiaquatic, carnivorous mammals of the genera Neogale and Mustela and part of the family Mustelidae, which also includes weasels, otters, and ferrets. There are two extant species referred to as "mink": the American mink and the European mink. The extinct sea mink was related to the American mink but was much larger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European polecat</span> Species of mustelid native to Eurasia and north Morocco

The European polecat, also known as the common polecat, black polecat and forest polecat, is a mustelid species native to Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. It is of a generally dark brown colour, with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face. Occasionally, colour mutations including albinos, leucists, isabellinists, xanthochromists, amelanists, and erythrists occur. It has a shorter, more compact body than other Mustela species, a more powerfully built skull and dentition, is less agile, and is well known for having the characteristic ability to secrete a particularly foul-smelling liquid to mark its territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dire wolf</span> Extinct species of canine mammal

The dire wolf is an extinct canine. The dire wolf lived in the Americas during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene epochs. The species was named in 1858, four years after the first specimen had been found. Two subspecies are recognized: Aenocyon dirus guildayi and Aenocyon dirus dirus. The largest collection of its fossils has been obtained from the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Long-tailed weasel</span> Species of weasel native to the Americas

The long-tailed weasel, also known as the bridled weasel, masked ermine, or big stoat, is a species of weasel found in North, Central, and South America. It is distinct from the short-tailed weasel, also known as a "stoat", a close relation in the genus Mustela that originated in Eurasia and crossed into North America some half million years ago; the two species are visually similar, especially the black tail tip.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European mink</span> Species of mammal

The European mink, also known as the Russian mink and Eurasian mink, is a semiaquatic species of mustelid native to Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American mink</span> Semiaquatic species of mustelid

The American mink is a semiaquatic species of mustelid native to North America, though human introduction has expanded its range to many parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. Because of range expansion, the American mink is classed as a least-concern species by the IUCN. The American mink was formerly thought to be the only extant member of the genus Neovison following the extinction of the sea mink (N. macrodon), but recent studies, followed by taxonomic authorities, have reclassified it and the sea mink within the genus Neogale, which also contains a few New World weasel species. The American mink is a carnivore that feeds on rodents, fish, crustaceans, frogs, and birds. In its introduced range in Europe it has been classified as an invasive species linked to declines in European mink, Pyrenean desman, and water vole populations. It is the animal most frequently farmed for its fur, exceeding the silver fox, sable, marten, and skunk in economic importance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amazon weasel</span> Species of carnivore

The Amazon weasel, also known as the tropical weasel, is a species of New World weasel native to South America. It was first identified from a museum specimen mislabelled as coming from Africa, hence the scientific name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mustelinae</span> Subfamily of carnivores

Mustelinae is a subfamily of family Mustelidae, including weasels, ferrets, and minks.

<i>Enaliarctos</i> Genus of pinniped

Enaliarctos is an extinct genus of pinnipedimorph, and may represent the ancestor to all pinnipeds. The five species in the genus Enaliarctos have been recovered from late Oligocene and early Miocene strata of California and Oregon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colombian weasel</span> Species of carnivore

The Colombian weasel, also known as Don Felipe's weasel, is a very rare species of New World weasel only known with certainty from the departments of Huila and Cauca in Colombia and nearby northern Ecuador. Both its scientific and alternative common name honours the mammalogist Philip "Don Felipe" Hershkovitz.

<i>Palaeogale</i> Extinct genus of carnivores

Palaeogale is an extinct genus of carnivorous mammal known from the Late Eocene, Oligocene, and Early Miocene of North America, Europe, and Eastern Asia. A small carnivore often associated with the mustelids, Palaeogale might have been similar to living genets, civets, and linsangs.

<i>Neogale</i> Genus of mustelids

Neogale is a genus of carnivorous, highly active small mammals belonging to the Mustelidae family. Neogale contains four species: the Amazon weasel, the long and short-tailed weasels, and the American mink. Native to the Americas, members of the genus can be found as far north as Alaska and as far south as Argentina and Bolivia. Across this distribution, they thrive in a range of habitats, from the deep-freezes of the Alaskan and Canadian boreal forests to the arid desert southwest, and from the humid tropics of Central and South America to the windswept foothills of the Andes and northern Patagonia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic mink</span> Domesticated carnivore bred for hunting and pest control

Domestic mink, also known as domestic American mink, are a domesticated, carnivorous mammal, bred for hunting and pest control. Domestic mink differ from their wild ancestors, the American mink, in fur colour, size, thicker pelts, and higher tranquility. Domesticated mink come from fur farms, and are the most common animal raised for their fur, with over 50 million farmed annually. Debate has occurred whether the domestic mink is domesticated or not.

References

  1. ↑ Helgen, K.; Turvey, S.T. (2016). "Neovison macrodon". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T40784A45204492. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T40784A45204492.en . Retrieved 14 March 2022.
  2. ↑ "Neogale macrodon. NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  3. ↑ "Neovison macrodon". NatureServe Explorer. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
  4. ↑ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 619. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sealfon, R. A. (2007). "Dental divergence supports species status of the extinct sea mink (Neovison macrodon)". Journal of Mammalogy. 88 (#2): 371–383. doi: 10.1644/06-MMM-A-227R1.1 . JSTOR   4498666.
  6. 1 2 Prentiss, D. W. (1903). "Description of an extinct mink from the shell-heaps of the Maine coast" (PDF). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 26 (#1336): 887–888. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.26-1336.887.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Graham, R. (2001). "Comment on "Skeleton of extinct North American sea mink (Mustela macrodon)" by Mead et al.". Quaternary Research. 56 (#3): 419–421. Bibcode:2001QuRes..56..419G. doi: 10.1006/qres.2001.2266 .
  8. ↑ Kays, R. W.; Wilson, D. E. (2009). Mammals of North America (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Princeton University Press. p. 180. ISBN   978-0-6911-4092-6. OCLC   880833145.
  9. 1 2 Loomis, F. B. (1911). "A new mink from the shell-heaps of Maine". American Journal of Science. 31 (#183): 227–229. Bibcode:1911AmJS...31..227L. doi:10.2475/ajs.s4-31.183.227.
  10. 1 2 3 Mead, J.; Spiess, A. E.; Sobolik, K. D. (2000). "Skeleton of extinct North American sea mink (Mustela macrodon)". Quaternary Research. 53 (#2): 247–262. Bibcode:2000QuRes..53..247M. doi:10.1006/qres.1999.2109. S2CID   128753557.
  11. ↑ Nyakatura, K.; Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P. (2012). "Updating the evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia): a new species-level supertree complete with divergence time estimates". BMC Biology. 10 (#12): 12. doi: 10.1186/1741-7007-10-12 . PMC   3307490 . PMID   22369503.
  12. ↑ Abramov, A. V. (2000). "A taxonomic review of the genus Mustela (Mammalia, Carnivora)" (PDF). Zoosystematica Rossica. 8: 357–364.
  13. ↑ "Etymology pages "M"". www.scotcat.com. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Manville, R. H. (1966). "The extinct sea mink, with taxonomic notes" (PDF). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 122 (#3584): 1–12. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.122-3584.1.
  15. ↑ Patterson, Bruce D.; Ramírez-Chaves, Héctor E.; Vilela, Júlio F.; Soares, André E. R.; Grewe, Felix (2021). "On the nomenclature of the American clade of weasels (Carnivora: Mustelidae)". Journal of Animal Diversity. 3 (2): 1–8. doi: 10.52547/JAD.2021.3.2.1 . ISSN   2676-685X. S2CID   236299740.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mowat, F. (2012) [1984]. Sea of slaughter. Vancouver, British Columbia: Douglas and McIntyre. pp. 160–164. ISBN   978-1-77100-046-8. OCLC   879632158.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Hollister, N. (1965). "A synopsis of the American minks". Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 44 (#1965): 478–479. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.44-1965.471.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Black, D. W.; Reading, J. E.; Savage, H. G. (1998). "Archaeological records of the extinct sea mink, Mustela macrodon (Carnivora: Mustelidae), from Canada" (PDF). Canadian Field-Naturalist. 112 (#1): 45–49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2017-07-13.
  19. ↑ Waters, J. H.; Ray, C. E. (1961). "Former range of the sea mink". Journal of Mammalogy. 42 (#3): 380–383. doi:10.2307/1377035. JSTOR   1377035.
  20. ↑ Day, David (1981). The encyclopedia of vanished species. London: Universal Books. p. 220. ISBN   978-0-947889-30-2.
  21. 1 2 Hardy, M. (1903). "The extinct mink from the Maine shell heaps". Forest and Stream. LXI (#I): 125.
  22. ↑ Mead, J. I.; Spiess, A. E. (2001). "Reply to Russell Graham about Mustela macrodon". Quaternary Research. 56 (#3): 422–423. Bibcode:2001QuRes..56..422M. doi:10.1006/qres.2001.2268. S2CID   129877837.
  23. ↑ Seton, E. T. (1929). Lives of game animals. Vol. 2. Doubleday, Doran. p. 562. OCLC   872457192.
  24. ↑ Bourque, B. J. (1995). Diversity and complexity in prehistoric maritime societies: a Gulf Of Maine perspective. New York, New York: Plenum Press. p. 341. ISBN   978-0-306-44874-4. The Mustela macrodon cranium is much more complete than those from the rest of the midden, adding to the impression that these bones were placed especially in the cache.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.