Steller's eider

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Steller's eider
Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) (13667966664).jpg
Male (drake)
Stellershen3.jpg
Female (hen)
Status TNC G3.svg
Vulnerable  (NatureServe) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Polysticta
Eyton, 1836
Species:
P. stelleri
Binomial name
Polysticta stelleri
(Pallas, 1769)
Polysticta stelleri range map.png

Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri) is a migrating Arctic diving duck that breeds along the coastlines of eastern Russia and Alaska. It is the rarest, smallest, and fastest flying of the eider species. [3]

Due to the extensive contraction of its breeding range, the Alaska-breeding population of Steller's eider was listed as vulnerable in 1997 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). [4] The species is protected in Russia and the U.S. and is the subject of an ongoing recovery plan by the European Union and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [4] [5]

Taxonomy

Steller's eider was formally described and illustrated in 1769 by the German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas from a specimen collected on the Kamchatka Peninsula in Eastern Russia. He coined the binomial name Anas stelleri; the specific epithet was chosen to honour the German naturalist and explorer Georg Wilhelm Steller. [6] [7] Steller's eider is now the only species placed in the genus Polysticta that was introduced in 1836 by the English naturalist Thomas Eyton. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. [8] [9] The genus name is from Ancient Greek polustiktos meaning "much spotted" (from polus "many" and stiktos "spotted"). [10]

Despite its name, it is only distantly related to all other extant eider species, which are part of the Somateria genus. [11] Steller's eider was separated from other eider species into its own genus in 1945 due to behavioral and anatomical differences. [12] Accordingly, Steller's eider may provide a taxonomic link between the eider species in the Somateria genus and the other sea ducks. [12] It is most closely related to the extinct Labrador duck.

Description

Male Steller's eider in breeding plumage Magnus von Wright - Steller's Eider, Male - A II 1022-23 - Finnish National Gallery.jpg
Male Steller's eider in breeding plumage

Steller’s eider is the smallest of four eider species, with both females and males weighing 800 grams on average (1.8 pounds). [13] They have a compact body with a relatively large head, long tail, and a long, thick bill. [14] The males assume their breeding plumage from early winter to midsummer with a black cap, chin, throat, eye-ring, and rump, with a white head and shoulders, light-green patches behind the head and in front of the eye, cinnamon breast and shoulders marked with a prominent black spot. [4] The wings appear to be striped white, with an iridescent bluish-purple background colour and white border. [14] They have palmate feet (3 fully webbed toes) which are a dark bluish-gray, the same color as the legs. [15] In mid-summer to fall, males assume their non-breeding plumage which is primarily dark brown with a white-bordered bluish speculum (secondary feathers) on their wing. [4] Females are a dark to cinnamon brown with a pale-white eye-ring, similar to the lighter brown juveniles. [14] Females also have iridescent bluish-purple speculums with a white border running the entire length of the secondaries.

Standard Measurements [15] [16]
length 430–460 mm (17–18 in)
weight 860 g (1.90 lb)
wingspan 690 mm (27 in)
wing 210–225 mm (8.3–8.9 in)
culmen 37–42 mm (1.5–1.7 in)
tarsus 36–40 mm (1.4–1.6 in)

Habitat and distribution

Marshy tundra, Alaska, U.S. Tundra looking south toward Brooks Range, Alaska.jpg
Marshy tundra, Alaska, U.S.

During the winter, Steller’s eiders occupy coastal bays and lagoons that offer suitable forage while occasionally feeding in deeper waters that remain adequately sheltered. [4] They nest in marshy tundra along the coast, in areas dominated by water sedge and pendant grass. [14] Within the marshy tundra, they designate specific areas to build their nest, preferring elevated surfaces covered by shallow vegetation such as mosses and grasses. [14] Their molting habitat consists of relatively shallow coastal lagoons that offer viable eelgrass and tidal flats for foraging and beaches and sandbars to rest while they remain flightless. [14] [17]

Population distributions

There are three recognized breeding populations of Steller’s eiders, one in Alaska and two in Arctic Russia.

Some non-breeding populations will also spend their summers in northern Norway, on the east coast of Russia and adjacent waters, and south-west Alaska. [18]

Behaviour and ecology

Diet

A flock of Steller's eiders Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) (13667593713).jpg
A flock of Steller's eiders

Steller's eiders forage primarily near the shore by employing various techniques such as briefly diving and swimming underwater (to a maximum depth of 9m), wading and dabbling. [19] [20] They feed by surface techniques more than other sea ducks and prefer relatively small prey. [21] Studies have shown that Steller's eiders are specialists in catching highly mobile prey but may limit their diet to crustaceans even when higher energy sources, such as capelin, become available. [22] This discrepancy in food preferences may be due to their inability to exploit deeper habitats. [22] Steller's eiders also feed on mollusks, echinoderms, polychaete worms, and mussels during the winter. [23] While in the tundra during the summer months, they feed on aquatic insects and plant material such as crowberries and pondweeds. [19]

Reproduction

According to banding studies, Steller's eiders can live up to 21 years and four months and reach sexual maturity at two years. [24] Males engage in leks on the wintering and breeding grounds, where groups of males attempt to win over an individual female with elaborate displays. [14] Males court females in silence by displaying a consistent sequence of side-to-side head-shaking while swimming towards and away from their potential female partner. [14] Steller's eiders tend to form breeding pairs during late-winter to early-spring instead of the fall like most waterfowl. [20] Breeding pairs arrive at their nesting sites as early as the beginning of June. [25]

Females establish their nests in marshy tundra close to permanent open water that has additional access to small ponds. [23] They specifically select mounds or ridges dominated by mosses, lichens, and grasses. [4] Their nest is shallow, lined with grasses, moss, lichens, and down feathers plucked from the female's breast, who builds the nest without help from the male. [19] [14]

Females usually lay 1-8 olive to brownish-orange eggs per breeding cycle. [4] [14] She then incubates the eggs alone for about 25 days. [26] The young are precocial and hatch between late June and late July with their eyes open and sporting downy feathers. [14] However, predators consume the majority of eggs before they are hatched. [4] [26] The young go to the water shortly after hatching and immediately feed themselves, without relying on their mother for food. [4] Regardless of their feeding independence, females will stay within 700m of their nest for up to 35 days post-hatch, while the young begin flying approximately 40 days after hatching. [4] [26] It is not uncommon for one female to assume care of two or more sets of young from a different mother. [19]

Average Nest Dimensions [14]
Diameter14.6 inches
Height7.7 inches
Cup Diameter5.7 inches
Cup Height3.7 inches

Vocalization

Males make a low jumbled growling sound, while females make a discrete qua-haaa sound of a similar tone. [14] Males have also been reported to produce a repetitive crackling sound when females go underwater. [27] Notably, the males court the females in silence. [14] During flight, their feathers produce a mechanical whistling sound. [14]

Molt

After breeding, Steller's eiders gather in high-density flocks to synchronously molt (replace all their feather at the same time) in Arctic lagoons in northwest Asia and along the Alaska peninsula. [21] They remain flightless for about three weeks, but the entire flight-feather molt lasts from July to October. [21] Juveniles molt first, followed by adult males and adult females. [21]

Threats

The decline of Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider population is predominantly unclear. It has been attributed to changes to the Arctic climate, increased predation rates, hunting and consumption of lead shot, and disease. [28] Since their listing, additional threats such as exposure to oil and other contaminants have been identified. [28]

Climate change

Climate change may pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eiders. Primarily, climate change has caused Arctic tundra ponds to disappear, limiting the extent of suitable habitat for the species. [29] Climate change has also been implicated in the collapse of rodent populations, forcing predators to exploit alternative prey such as the eggs and young of Steller's eider. [26]

Lead poisoning

High levels of lead have been reported in Steller’s eiders that nest on the Alaska Arctic Coastal plain and in Spectacled Eiders that occupy the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, where Steller’s Eiders continue to nest in highly reduced densities. [30] Further studies have also shown that lead concentration was higher in individuals located close to industrialized regions than non-industrialized regions. [31]

Nest predation

Nest predation by the Arctic fox, pomarine jaeger, snowy owl, and common raven pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eider's nesting success rate. [4] Studies have shown that Steller’s eider reproduce most successfully when lemmings are abundant, most likely resulting from predators transitioning between prey during years of lemming decline. [32]

Natural resource exploitation

The exploitation of natural resources such as oil and gas contributes to Steller’s eider habitat loss. [32] Regional exploitation projects have increased the risk of spill contamination. At the same time, an increase in human presence and infrastructure have contributed to the demise of suitable habitats. [32]

Disease

Steller’s eiders transport the Avian Influenza virus between Eurasia and North America during their migrations. [33] Many recent studies have reported prominent infection rates amongst Steller’s eiders in Alaska, ranging from 0.2% to 5%. [33] [34] [35] It has been suggested that 80% of Steller’s eiders in Alaska are carriers of avian influenza antibodies. [34]

E. coli has also been reported in Alaska-breeding Steller’s eiders and is thought to be linked to wastewater from local human communities and industrialization. [36]

Recovery plan

Two-recovery plans have been implemented to restore healthy populations of Steller’s eiders.  The European Union action plan, published in 2000 and The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service action plan, originally published in 2002.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Action Plan

The Recovery Plan for the Alaska-breeding population of Steller’s eider (Polysticta stelleri) was last revised by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in September 2020. The primary focus of this plan is to ensure a viable breeding population of Steller’s eider in northern Alaska, rather than aiming for two subpopulations in northern and western Alaska. The plan aims to:

The recovery plan is primarily limited by uncertainty about the Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider’s ecology and population dynamics. Thus, the action plan coincides with an effort to conduct research and enhance knowledge of the species.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service predicts that if the plan is adequately funded and properly implemented, the recovery criteria could be met by 2050. The total cost is estimated at $15,675,000.

Critical habitat designation

In 2001 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated five critical breeding habitats on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and four marine water units along the coast of southwest Alaska that are critical for molting, feeding, and wintering. [37] The entire designation includes approximately 2,800 square miles and 850 miles of coastline. [37]

Conservation status

Global population estimates of Steller's eider Steller's Eider Global population estimates.png
Global population estimates of Steller's eider

In 2016, the global population of Steller’s eider was estimated at 110,000-125,000 individuals and classified as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). [23]

In 1992, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviewed the status of Steller’s eider and concluded that listing the species as endangered was warranted, but precluded by higher species listing priorities. [4] One year later, in 1993, they reconsidered Steller’s eider’s status and supported the listing of the Alaska-breeding population, but did not include the Russian-breeding populations. [4] Finally, the Alaska-breeding population was listed as threatened in 1997. [4] The primary reason for listing was the near disappearance of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta population, contracting the Alaskan nesting sites to the Arctic Coastal Plain and increasing the population’s risk of extirpation. [4] `

Cultural significance

Steller’s eiders were once legally harvested by waterfowl hunters in the U.S., but all legal hunting ended in 1991. [38] Egging and subsistence hunting still occurs in Alaska, but is uncommon. The degree of subsistence hunting in Russia and its effect on the population is poorly documented.   [38]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georg Wilhelm Steller</span> German biologist and explorer (1709–1746)

Georg Wilhelm Steller was a German-born naturalist and explorer who contributed to the fields of biology, zoology, and ethnography. He participated in the Great Northern Expedition (1733–1743) and his observations of the natural world helped the exploration and documentation of the flora and fauna of the North Pacific region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-tailed eagle</span> Species of bird

The white-tailed eagle, sometimes known as the 'sea eagle', is a large bird of prey, widely distributed across temperate Eurasia. Like all eagles, it is a member of the family Accipitridae which includes other diurnal raptors such as hawks, kites, and harriers. One of up to eleven members in the genus Haliaeetus, which are commonly called sea eagles, it is also referred to as the white-tailed sea-eagle. Sometimes, it is known as the ern or erne, gray sea eagle and Eurasian sea eagle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steller's jay</span> Species of bird found in western North America

Steller's jay is a bird native to western North America and the mountains of Central America, closely related to the blue jay found in eastern North America. It is the only crested jay west of the Rocky Mountains. It is also sometimes colloquially called a "blue jay" in the Pacific Northwest, but is distinct from the blue jay of eastern North America. The species inhabits pine-oak and coniferous forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mergini</span> Tribe of birds

The sea ducks (Mergini) are a tribe of the duck subfamily of birds, the Anatinae. The taxonomy of this group is incomplete. Some authorities separate the group as a subfamily, while others remove some genera. Most species within the group spend their winters near coastal waters. Many species have developed specialized salt glands to allow them to tolerate salt water, but these are poorly developed in juveniles. Some of the species prefer riverine habitats. All but two of the 22 species in this group live in far northern latitudes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green-winged teal</span> Species of bird

The American teal or green-winged teal is a common and widespread duck that breeds in the northern areas of North America except on the Aleutian Islands. It was considered conspecific with the Eurasian teal for some time, but has since been split into its own species. The American Ornithological Society continues to debate this determination; however, nearly all other authorities consider it distinct based on behavioral, morphological, and molecular evidence. The scientific name is from Latin Anas, "duck" and carolinensis, "of Carolina".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tundra swan</span> Species of bird

The tundra swan is a small swan of the Holarctic. The two taxa within it are usually regarded as conspecific, but are also sometimes split into two species: Bewick's swan of the Palaearctic and the whistling swan proper of the Nearctic. Birds from eastern Russia are sometimes separated as the subspecies C. c. jankowskii, but this is not widely accepted as distinct, with most authors including them in C. c. bewickii. Tundra swans are sometimes separated in the subgenus Olor together with the other Arctic swan species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snowy owl</span> Species of owl

The snowy owl, also known as the polar owl, the white owl and the Arctic owl, is a large, white owl of the true owl family. Snowy owls are native to the Arctic regions of both North America and the Palearctic, breeding mostly on the tundra. It has a number of unique adaptations to its habitat and lifestyle, which are quite distinct from other extant owls. One of the largest species of owl, it is the only owl with mainly white plumage. Males tend to be a purer white overall while females tend to have more extensive flecks of dark brown. Juvenile male snowy owls have dark markings that may appear similar to females until maturity, at which point they typically turn whiter. The composition of brown markings about the wing, although not foolproof, is the most reliable technique to age and sex individual snowy owls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common eider</span> Species of bird

The common eider, also called St. Cuthbert's duck or Cuddy's duck, is a large sea-duck that is distributed over the northern coasts of Europe, North America and eastern Siberia. It breeds in Arctic and some northern temperate regions, but winters somewhat farther south in temperate zones, when it can form large flocks on coastal waters. It can fly at speeds up to 113 km/h (70 mph).

Eider are large seaducks in the genus Somateria, including:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater scaup</span> Species of bird

The greater scaup, just scaup in Europe or, colloquially, "bluebill" in North America, is a mid-sized diving duck, larger than the closely related lesser scaup. It spends the summer months breeding in Alaska, northern Canada, Siberia, and the northernmost reaches of Europe. During the winter, it migrates south to the coasts of North America, Europe, and Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific golden plover</span> Species of bird

The Pacific golden plover is a migratory shorebird that breeds during summer in Alaska and Siberia. During nonbreeding season, this medium-sized plover migrates widely across the Pacific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor goose</span> Species of bird

The emperor goose, also known as the beach goose or the painted goose, is a waterfowl species in the family Anatidae, which contains the ducks, geese, and swans. In summer, the emperor goose is found in remote coastal areas near the Bering Sea in arctic and sub-arctic Alaska and the Russian Far East, where it breeds in monogamous pairs. It migrates south to winter in ice-free mudflats and coasts in Alaska, mostly the Aleutian Islands, and Canada's British Columbia, rarely reaching the contiguous United States. Listed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the species' population is declining due to threats such as pollution, hunting, and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surf scoter</span> Species of bird

The surf scoter is a large sea duck native to North America. Adult males are almost entirely black with characteristic white patches on the forehead and the nape and adult females are slightly smaller and browner. Surf scoters breed in Northern Canada and Alaska and winter along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America. Those diving ducks mainly feed on benthic invertebrates, mussels representing an important part of their diet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King eider</span> Species of bird

The king eider is a large sea duck that breeds along Northern Hemisphere Arctic coasts of northeast Europe, North America and Asia. The birds spend most of the year in coastal marine ecosystems at high latitudes, and migrate to Arctic tundra to breed in June and July. They lay four to seven eggs in a scrape on the ground lined with grass and down.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aleutian tern</span> Species of bird

The Aleutian tern is a migratory bird living in the subarctic region of the globe most of the year. It is frequently associated with the Arctic tern, which it closely resembles. While both species have a black cap, the Aleutian tern may be distinguished by its white forehead. During breeding season, the Arctic terns have bright red bills, feet, and legs while those of the Aleutian terns are black.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trumpeter swan</span> Species of bird

The trumpeter swan is a species of swan found in North America. The heaviest living bird native to North America, it is also the largest extant species of waterfowl, with a wingspan of 185 to 304.8 cm. It is the American counterpart and a close relative of the whooper swan of Eurasia, and even has been considered the same species by some authorities. By 1933, fewer than 70 wild trumpeters were known to exist, and extinction seemed imminent, until aerial surveys discovered a Pacific population of several thousand trumpeters around Alaska's Copper River. Careful reintroductions by wildlife agencies and the Trumpeter Swan Society gradually restored the North American wild population to over 46,000 birds by 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spectacled eider</span> Species of bird

The spectacled eider is a large sea duck that breeds on the coasts of Alaska and northeastern Siberia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eider</span> Genus of birds

The eiders are large seaducks in the genus Somateria. The three extant species all breed in the cooler latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic coastal tundra</span> Tundra ecoregion of Canada and the United States

The Arctic coastal tundra is an ecoregion of the far north of North America, an important breeding ground for a great deal of wildlife.

The Sea Duck Joint Venture (SDJV) is a conservation partnership established in 1998 whose mission is "promoting the conservation of North America’s Sea Ducks". The partners are the Canadian Wildlife Service, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the United States Geological Survey, Ducks Unlimited, Bird Studies Canada, the Pacific Flyway Council, and the council for U.S. Flyways. It is one of three species joint ventures operating within the North American Waterfowl Management Plan.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2018). "Polysticta stelleri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2018: e.T22680415A132527232. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22680415A132527232.en . Retrieved 3 February 2022.
  2. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0".
  3. ↑ "Stellers Eider | Types of Ducks & Geese". www.ducks.org. Retrieved 2021-11-12.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (September 2020). "Steller's Eider Recovery Plan" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  5. ↑ European Union for the Conservation of Nature (1997). "European Species Action Plan for Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)" (PDF). European Union for the Conservation of Nature. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  6. ↑ Pallas, Peter Simon (1769). Spicilegia zoologica : quibus novae imprimis et obscurae animalium species iconibus, descriptionibus atque commentariis illustrantur (in Latin). Vol. 1. Berolini: Prostant apud Gottl. August. Lange. fasc. 6 pp. 35-36; Plate 5.
  7. ↑ Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 490.
  8. ↑ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2023). "Screamers, ducks, geese & swans". IOC World Bird List Version 13.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  9. ↑ Eyton, Thomas Campbell (1836). A Catalogue of British Birds. London: Longman, Rees, Orne, Brown, Green and Longman. p. 58.
  10. ↑ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 313. ISBN   978-1-4081-2501-4.
  11. ↑ "ITIS - Report: Polysticta stelleri". www.itis.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-11.
  12. 1 2 A., Johnsgard, Paul (1961-01-01). The Taxonomy of the Anatidae—A Behavioural Analysis. DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. OCLC   729247849.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Fredrickson, Leigh H. (2001-01-01). Poole, Alan F.; Gill, Frank B. (eds.). "Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.571.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 "Steller's Eider Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  15. 1 2 Alcorn, Gordon D.; Godfrey, W. Earl (September 1966). "The Birds of Canada". The Murrelet. 47 (3): 77. doi:10.2307/3533677. ISSN   0027-3716. JSTOR   3533677.
  16. ↑ Sibley, David (2000). The Sibley guide to birds (1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN   0-679-45122-6. OCLC   44090592.
  17. ↑ Flint, Paul L.; Petersen, Margaret R.; Dau, Christian P.; Hines, James E.; Nichols, James D. (2000). "Annual Survival and Site Fidelity of Steller's Eiders Molting along the Alaska Peninsula". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 64 (1): 261–268. doi:10.2307/3802998. ISSN   0022-541X. JSTOR   3802998.
  18. 1 2 3 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (September 2006). "Biological Evaluation of Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri), Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri), and Kittlitz's Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris)" (PDF). Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  19. 1 2 3 4 "Steller's Eider". Audubon. 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  20. 1 2 Chukchi Sea Lease Sale (2006). "Biological Evaluation of Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri), Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri), and Kittlitz's Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris)" (PDF). Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Petersen, Margaret R. (August 1981). "Populations, Feeding Ecology and Molt of Steller's Eiders". The Condor. 83 (3): 256–262. doi:10.2307/1367319. ISSN   0010-5422. JSTOR   1367319.
  22. 1 2 Bustnes, Jan Ove; Systad, Geir Helge (December 2001). "Comparative Feeding Ecology of Steller's Eider and Long-Tailed Ducks in Winter". Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology. 24 (3): 407. doi:10.2307/1522072. ISSN   1524-4695. JSTOR   1522072.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Sea Duck Joint Venture (July 2016). "Species Status Summary and Information Needs Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)" (PDF). Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  24. ↑ Flint, Paul L.; Petersen, Margaret R.; Dau, Christian P.; Hines, James E.; Nichols, James D. (January 2000). "Annual Survival and Site Fidelity of Steller's Eiders Molting along the Alaska Peninsula". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 64 (1): 261. doi:10.2307/3802998. ISSN   0022-541X. JSTOR   3802998.
  25. ↑ "Bent, Arthur Cleveland. Life Histories of North American Fowl: Ducks, Geese, and Swans. Volumes I and II. New York (1780 Broadway); Dover Publications, 312 P. and 392 P. $8.00 for both volumes". Science Education. 39 (2): 184. March 1955. Bibcode:1955SciEd..39R.184.. doi:10.1002/sce.3730390278. ISSN   0036-8326.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Quakenbush, Lori; Suydam, Robert; Obritschkewitsch, Tim; Deering, Michele (2004-01-01). "Breeding Biology of Steller's Eiders (Polysticta stelleri) near Barrow, Alaska, 1991–99". Arctic. 57 (2). doi: 10.14430/arctic493 . ISSN   1923-1245.
  27. ↑ XC203462 Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) , retrieved 2021-11-10
  28. 1 2 Matz, Angela (February 1, 2008). "Steller's Eider Reintroduction" (PDF). National Conservation Training Center. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  29. ↑ Andresen, Christian G.; Lougheed, Vanessa L. (March 2015). "Disappearing Arctic tundra ponds: Fine-scale analysis of surface hydrology in drained thaw lake basins over a 65 year period (1948-2013)". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 120 (3): 466–479. Bibcode:2015JGRG..120..466A. doi:10.1002/2014jg002778. ISSN   2169-8953. S2CID   135283843.
  30. ↑ Flint, Paul L.; Grand, James B.; Petersen, Margaret R.; Rockwell, Robert F. (2016-06-01). "Effects of Lead Exposure, Environmental Conditions, and Metapopulation Processes on Population Dynamics of Spectacled Eiders". North American Fauna. 81 (1): 1–41. doi: 10.3996/nafa.81.0001 . ISSN   1944-4575.
  31. ↑ Miles, A. Keith; Flint, Paul L.; Trust, Kimberley A.; Ricca, Mark A.; Spring, Sarah E.; Arrieta, Daniel E.; Hollmen, Tuula; Wilson, Barry W. (2007). "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure in Steller's Eiders (Polysticta stelleri) and Harlequin Ducks (Histronicus histronicus) in the Eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USA". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 26 (12): 2694–3303. doi:10.1897/07-259.1. ISSN   0730-7268. PMID   18020694. S2CID   28782733.
  32. 1 2 3 Safine, David Elliot (2013). Breeding ecology of Steller's and spectacled eiders nesting near Barrow, Alaska, 2012. Endangered Species Branch, Fairbanks Fish and Wildlife Field Office, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. OCLC   946527072.
  33. 1 2 Ip, Hon S; Flint, Paul L; Franson, J Christian; Dusek, Robert J; Derksen, Dirk V; Gill, Robert E; Ely, Craig R; Pearce, John M; Lanctot, Richard B; Matsuoka, Steven M; Irons, David B (2008-06-04). "Prevalence of Influenza A viruses in wild migratory birds in Alaska: Patterns of variation in detection at a crossroads of intercontinental flyways". Virology Journal. 5 (1): 71. doi: 10.1186/1743-422x-5-71 . ISSN   1743-422X. PMC   2435106 . PMID   18533040.
  34. 1 2 Wilson, Heather M.; Hall, Jeffery S.; Flint, Paul L.; Franson, J. Christian; Ely, Craig R.; Schmutz, Joel A.; Samuel, Michael D. (2013-03-05). Schnell, Matthias Johannes (ed.). "High Seroprevalence of Antibodies to Avian Influenza Viruses among Wild Waterfowl in Alaska: Implications for Surveillance". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e58308. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...858308W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058308 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3589273 . PMID   23472177.
  35. ↑ Ramey, Andrew M.; Pearce, John M.; Reeves, Andrew B.; Franson, J. Christian; Petersen, Margaret R.; Ip, Hon S. (2011-07-16). "Evidence for limited exchange of avian influenza viruses between seaducks and dabbling ducks at Alaska Peninsula coastal lagoons". Archives of Virology. 156 (10): 1813–1821. doi:10.1007/s00705-011-1059-z. ISSN   0304-8608. PMID   21766196. S2CID   19486083.
  36. ↑ Hollmén, Tuula E.; DebRoy, Chitrita; Flint, Paul L.; Safine, David E.; Schamber, Jason L.; Riddle, Ann E.; Trust, Kimberly A. (2011). "Molecular typing of Escherichia coli strains associated with threatened sea ducks and near-shore marine habitats of south-west Alaska". Environmental Microbiology Reports. 3 (2): 262–269. doi:10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00220.x. ISSN   1758-2229. PMID   23761259.
  37. 1 2 "Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) | Alaska Region". www.fws.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-11.
  38. 1 2 Alaska Department of Fish and Game. "Steller's Eider Uses, Alaska Department of Fish and Game". www.adfg.alaska.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-11.
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