Tick infestation

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Tick infestation
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Ticks are insects known for attaching to and sucking blood from land-dwelling animals (specifically vertebrates). [1] Ticks fall under the category of 'arthropod', and while they are often thought of in the context of disease transmission, they are also known to cause direct harm to hosts through bites, toxin release, and infestation. Infestation can cause symptoms ranging from mild to severe and may even cause death. [2] Hosts can include any number of vertebrates, though humans and livestock are more likely to be the interest of researchers. [1]

Contents

Overview

There are two main categories of tick: soft ticks (family Argasidae) and hard ticks (family Ixodidae). [3] A third tick family, Nuttalliellidae, is less commonly discussed. [3] The primary distinction between soft and hard ticks is the amount of time they stay attached to their host. Soft ticks remain attached on the order of a couple hours and may take multiple blood meals from the same host. Hard ticks on the other hand tend to stay attached for several days to weeks, feeding continuously. [3] The ticks that transmit Lyme disease are hard ticks. [4]

Ticks often have a preferred host, but may still attach to a different host when called for. Their preferred host may change depending on the tick's stage of development (eg larval vs adult) and the host may or may not carry the transmittable pathogen. [3] An example of these concepts can be found in the deer tick, known to transmit Lyme disease to humans in the US. The larval stage of development takes place in a small mouse. This mouse also carries the bacterium that causes Lyme Disease. The adult deer tick attaches to its namesake, but the deer does not carry the bacterium. Humans are not the preferred natural host, but the adult ticks, containing the bacterium known to cause Lyme disease, can attach to humans and allow for transmission of the bacterium. [5]

Ticks are found around the world, with suggestions that climate change and globalization of travel and commerce may be broadening their scope of residence. [6]

Ticks use various tactics to reach their target host. Sometimes they employ a crawl-like movement to move towards their host. Other times they may perch along blades of grass or other vegetation, ready to move aboard animals as they brush by. After attachment, ticks gain access to a hosts blood supply via use of sharp projections from their mouth known as chelicerae. [4] Under normal physiology conditions, animals would form clots and prevent excess bleeding after damage from something like chelicerae. Ticks account for this by secreting compounds in their saliva that prevent normal healing and promote bleeding. [4]

Disease state

Ticks can cause disease states unrelated to their ability to transmit pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. [7] Symptoms range from mild local irritation at the site of attachment all the way to death. [8] Local reactions can usually be seen within 24–48 hours of attachment and can be associated with swelling, itchiness, and pain. [8] Ticks can attach to most surfaces of the body and may even find residence within cavities such as the ear. [7] More widespread reactions can occur, potentially leading to hives across the body, severe discomfort, and in some cases anaphylaxis (extreme allergic reaction that can affect airways and breathing). [7] In some cases, parts of the tick head can remain lodged at the site of attachment, resulting in more chronic symptoms and greater levels of swelling and tissue damage. [8] Serious skin infections such as cellulitis can set in due to the tissue damage from tick attachment. [8] In rare cases, ticks infestation can result in paralysis, a loss of motor function that can be debilitating and may even result in death. [8]

Prevention

Preventing tick infestation is an important global effort. It is estimated that the worldwide cost associated with controlling tick levels and tick borne disease is as high as 13.9 to 18.7 million US dollars. [9] There are multiple ways to approach the issue of how to prevent tick infestation. For many years, the main way in which humans thought to control tick infestation was by the use of pesticides against ticks, called acaricides. [10] This has been especially important in the context of ticks that infested cattle. [10] But, these acaricides are often considered toxic, expensive, and decreasingly effective. [9] Much as bacteria can become resistant to antibiotic, Ticks can gain resistance to acaricides, rendering them effective at preventing infestation. Studies suggest that vaccination may be an effective, less environmentally impactful, and less expensive way to prevent tick infestation. [11] A vaccine for humans to prevent tick-borne encephalitis was approved by the CDC in 2021 for use in the US. [12] Though, this is not stated to prevent infestation itself, but rather a specific disease related to infestation.[ citation needed ]

Some of the best preventive measures for humans to avoid infestation, outside of using pesticidal bug sprays, include avoidance, appropriate clothes, and skin checks after potential tick encounters. [10] Jobs or hobbies that involve outdoor activities are shown to increase the risk of infestation, and as such, avoidance can be as simple as not hiking in or visiting areas known to be home to lots of ticks. [9] Clothes that cover exposed skin can help limit tick attachment but should not be a substitute for thorough skin and hair checks following a hike in known tick-infested regions.[ citation needed ]

If someone comes in contact with a tick, they should remove it from their skin, wash the area (soap, water, and an antiseptic), and preserve the tick in alcohol. [9] If symptoms develop, saving the tick will be important for identification. Home remedies (such as vaseline or matches) have been used in the past, but are not currently recommended. [13] [ tone ]

Tick-borne diseases

While ticks are most notable in the public view as the insects responsible for transmitting Lyme disease, they carry and transmit a wide variety of other pathogens as well. [14] The bacterium that causes Lyme is Borrelia burgdorferi , a spirochete. [15] A number of other bacteria are transmitted by ticks, such as Babesia (very important in the context of cattle), Ehrlichia (causes ehrlichiosis), Anaplasma (causes anaplasmosis), Rickettsia (causes Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever), and many others. [14] These bacterial infections]often cause well-described rashes, such as the bullseye rash of Lyme disease, or the spotted rash of Rickettsiosis. [16] Symptoms are variable during these infections, ranging from self-limited [ clarification needed ] to very severe disease. [16] Lyme disease, for example, is known to have potentially severe complications involving the heart, immune system, and neurological systems. [16]

Non-bacterial pathogens transmitted by ticks are also common. [17] Viruses transmitted by arthropods such as ticks are an emerging field of study. [14] Commonly mentioned viruses include phleboviruses, Heartland virus, and Bourbon viruses. Symptoms may include hemorrhagic fever (elevated body temperature involving bleeding from various parts of the body) and thrombocytopenia (low levels of platelets in the body—an important component of blood clotting—deficiency results in worse bleeding). [17] Ticks can also transmit parasitic infection, separate from viruses or bacteria, and are often found to have co-infection with multiple types of pathogen. [14]

There is some evidence that Ixodes ricinus infected with Borrelia burgdorferi may become more efficient at infestation. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infection</span> Invasion of an organisms body by pathogenic agents

An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tick</span> Order of arachnids in the arthropod phylum

Ticks are parasitic arachnids that are part of the mite superorder Parasitiformes. Adult ticks are approximately 3 to 5 mm in length depending on age, sex, species, and "fullness". Ticks are external parasites, living by feeding on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. The timing of the origin of ticks is uncertain, though the oldest known tick fossils are from the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years old. Ticks are widely distributed around the world, especially in warm, humid climates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyme disease</span> Infectious disease caused by Borrelia bacteria, spread by ticks

Lyme disease, also known as Lyme borreliosis, is a vector-borne disease caused by the Borrelia bacterium, which is spread by ticks in the genus Ixodes. The most common sign of infection is an expanding red rash, known as erythema migrans (EM), which appears at the site of the tick bite about a week afterwards. The rash is typically neither itchy nor painful. Approximately 70–80% of infected people develop a rash. Early diagnosis can be difficult. Other early symptoms may include fever, headaches and tiredness. If untreated, symptoms may include loss of the ability to move one or both sides of the face, joint pains, severe headaches with neck stiffness or heart palpitations. Months to years later repeated episodes of joint pain and swelling may occur. Occasionally shooting pains or tingling in the arms and legs may develop. Despite appropriate treatment, about 10 to 20% of those affected develop joint pains, memory problems and tiredness for at least six months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colorado tick fever</span> Medical condition

Colorado tick fever (CTF) is a viral infection (Coltivirus) transmitted from the bite of an infected Rocky Mountain wood tick. It should not be confused with the bacterial tick-borne infection, Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Colorado tick fever is probably the same disease that American pioneers referred to as "mountain fever".

Tick-borne diseases, which afflict humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. They are caused by infection with a variety of pathogens, including rickettsia and other types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. The economic impact of tick-borne diseases is considered to be substantial in humans, and tick-borne diseases are estimated to affect ~80 % of cattle worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural reservoir</span> Type of population in infectious disease ecology

In infectious disease ecology and epidemiology, a natural reservoir, also known as a disease reservoir or a reservoir of infection, is the population of organisms or the specific environment in which an infectious pathogen naturally lives and reproduces, or upon which the pathogen primarily depends for its survival. A reservoir is usually a living host of a certain species, such as an animal or a plant, inside of which a pathogen survives, often without causing disease for the reservoir itself. By some definitions a reservoir may also be an environment external to an organism, such as a volume of contaminated air or water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tick-borne encephalitis</span> Medical condition

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease involving the central nervous system. The disease most often manifests as meningitis, encephalitis or meningoencephalitis. Myelitis and spinal paralysis also occurs. In about one third of cases sequelae, predominantly cognitive dysfunction, persists for a year or more.

<i>Borrelia burgdorferi</i> Species of bacteria

Borrelia burgdorferi is a bacterial species of the spirochete class in the genus Borrelia, and is one of the causative agents of Lyme disease in humans. Along with a few similar genospecies, some of which also cause Lyme disease, it makes up the species complex of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. The complex currently comprises 20 accepted and 3 proposed genospecies. B. burgdorferi sensu stricto exists in North America and Eurasia and until 2016 was the only known cause of Lyme disease in North America. Borrelia species are Gram-negative.

Relapsing fever is a vector-borne disease caused by infection with certain bacteria in the genus Borrelia, which is transmitted through the bites of lice or soft-bodied ticks.

<i>Babesia</i> Genus of protozoan parasites

Babesia, also called Nuttallia, is an apicomplexan parasite that infects red blood cells and is transmitted by ticks. Originally discovered by the Romanian bacteriologist Victor Babeș in 1888, over 100 species of Babesia have since been identified.

<i>Anaplasma phagocytophilum</i> Species of bacterium

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative bacterium that is unusual in its tropism to neutrophils. It causes anaplasmosis in sheep and cattle, also known as tick-borne fever and pasture fever, and also causes the zoonotic disease human granulocytic anaplasmosis.

Powassan virus (POWV) is a Flavivirus transmitted by ticks, found in North America and in the Russian Far East. It is named after the town of Powassan, Ontario, where it was identified in a young boy who eventually died from it. It can cause encephalitis, an infection of the brain. No approved vaccine or antiviral drug exists. Prevention of tick bites is the best precaution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anaplasmosis</span> Medical condition

Anaplasmosis is a tick-borne disease affecting ruminants, dogs, and horses, and is caused by Anaplasma bacteria. Anaplasmosis is an infectious but not contagious disease. Anaplasmosis can be transmitted through mechanical and biological vector processes. Anaplasmosis can also be referred to as "yellow bag" or "yellow fever" because the infected animal can develop a jaundiced look. Other signs of infection include weight loss, diarrhea, paleness of the skin, aggressive behavior, and high fever.

<i>Ixodes scapularis</i> Species of tick

Ixodes scapularis is commonly known as the deer tick or black-legged tick, and in some parts of the US as the bear tick. It was also named Ixodes dammini until it was shown to be the same species in 1993. It is a hard-bodied tick found in the eastern and northern Midwest of the United States as well as in southeastern Canada. It is a vector for several diseases of animals, including humans and is known as the deer tick owing to its habit of parasitizing the white-tailed deer. It is also known to parasitize mice, lizards, migratory birds, etc. especially while the tick is in the larval or nymphal stage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human granulocytic anaplasmosis</span> Medical condition

Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) is a tick-borne, infectious disease caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum, an obligate intracellular bacterium that is typically transmitted to humans by ticks of the Ixodes ricinus species complex, including Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus in North America. These ticks also transmit Lyme disease and other tick-borne diseases.

<i>Rhipicephalus sanguineus</i> Species of species of tick found worldwide

Rhipicephalus sanguineus, commonly called the brown dog tick, kennel tick, or pantropical dog tick, is a species of tick found worldwide, but more commonly in warmer climates. This species is unusual among ticks in that its entire lifecycle can be completed indoors. The brown dog tick is easily recognized by its reddish-brown color, elongated body shape, and hexagonal basis capituli. Adults are 2.28 to 3.18 mm in length and 1.11 to 1.68 mm in width. They do not have ornamentation on their backs.

Borrelia miyamotoi is a bacterium of the spirochete phylum in the genus Borrelia. A zoonotic organism, B. miyamotoi can infect humans through the bite of several species of hard-shell Ixodes ticks, the same kind of ticks that spread B. burgdorferi, the causative bacterium of Lyme disease. Ixodes ticks are also the primary vector in the spread of babesiosis and anaplasmosis.

Patricia (Pat) Anne Nuttall, OBE is a British virologist and acarologist known for her research on tick-borne diseases. Her discoveries include the fact that pathogens can be transmitted between vectors feeding on a host without being detectable in the host's blood. She is also a science administrator who served as the director of the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (2001–11). As of 2015, she is professor of arbovirology in the Department of Zoology of the University of Oxford.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feline zoonosis</span> Medical condition

A feline zoonosis is a viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoan, nematode or arthropod infection that can be transmitted to humans from the domesticated cat, Felis catus. Some of these diseases are reemerging and newly emerging infections or infestations caused by zoonotic pathogens transmitted by cats. In some instances, the cat can display symptoms of infection and sometimes the cat remains asymptomatic. There can be serious illnesses and clinical manifestations in people who become infected. This is dependent on the immune status and age of the person. Those who live in close association with cats are more prone to these infections. But those that do not keep cats as pets are also able to acquire these infections because of the transmission can be from cat feces and the parasites that leave their bodies.

Borrelia mayonii is a Gram-negative, host-associated spirochete that is capable of causing Lyme disease. This organism can infect various vertebrate and invertebrate hosts such as humans and ticks, primarily Ixodes scapularis. Migratory songbirds play a role in the dispersal of the tick vector, Ixodes scapularis, across long distances, indirectly dispersing Borrelia mayonii as well.

References

  1. 1 2 Kassiri, Hamid; Nasirian, Hassan (2021-02-28). "New insights about human tick infestation features: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (14): 17000–17028. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13102-6. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   33641105. S2CID   232067128.
  2. ↑ Dana, Ali N. (2009). "Diagnosis and treatment of tick infestation and tick-borne diseases with cutaneous manifestations". Dermatologic Therapy. 22 (4): 293–326. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01244.x . PMID   19580576. S2CID   25312255.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Kassiri, Hamid; Nasirian, Hassan (2021-02-28). "New insights about human tick infestation features: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (14): 17000–17028. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13102-6. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   33641105. S2CID   232067128.
  4. 1 2 3 Dana, Ali N. (2009). "Diagnosis and treatment of tick infestation and tick-borne diseases with cutaneous manifestations". Dermatologic Therapy. 22 (4): 293–326. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01244.x . PMID   19580576. S2CID   25312255.
  5. ↑ Bush, Larry M.; Vazquez-Pertejo, Maria T. (May 2018). "Tick borne illness—Lyme disease". Disease-a-Month. 64 (5): 195–212. doi:10.1016/j.disamonth.2018.01.007. PMID   29402399.
  6. ↑ Semenza, Jan C; Suk, Jonathan E (2018-01-01). "Vector-borne diseases and climate change: a European perspective". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 365 (2). doi:10.1093/femsle/fnx244. ISSN   1574-6968. PMC   5812531 . PMID   29149298.
  7. 1 2 3 Kassiri, Hamid; Nasirian, Hassan (2021-02-28). "New insights about human tick infestation features: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (14): 17000–17028. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13102-6. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   33641105. S2CID   232067128.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Dana, Ali N. (2009). "Diagnosis and treatment of tick infestation and tick-borne diseases with cutaneous manifestations". Dermatologic Therapy. 22 (4): 293–326. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01244.x . PMID   19580576. S2CID   25312255.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Nasirian, Hassan; Zahirnia, Amirhossein (September 2021). "Detailed Infestation Spectrums About Biological Stages of Hard Ticks (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae) in Humans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Acta Parasitologica. 66 (3): 770–796. doi:10.1007/s11686-021-00362-y. ISSN   1230-2821. PMID   33743132. S2CID   232298114.
  10. 1 2 3 Aguilar-Díaz, Hugo; Quiroz-Castañeda, Rosa Estela; Salazar-Morales, Karina; Cossío-Bayúgar, Raquel; Miranda-Miranda, Estefan (2021-11-19). "Tick Immunobiology and Extracellular Traps: An Integrative Vision to Control of Vectors". Pathogens. 10 (11): 1511. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10111511 . ISSN   2076-0817. PMC   8621429 . PMID   34832666.
  11. ↑ Parthasarathi, B. C.; Kumar, Binod; Ghosh, Srikant (July 2021). "Current status and future prospects of multi-antigen tick vaccine". Journal of Vector Borne Diseases. 58 (3): 183–192. doi: 10.4103/0972-9062.321739 . ISSN   0972-9062. PMID   35170454. S2CID   246866699.
  12. ↑ Hills, Susan L; Broussard, Kelly R; Broyhill, James C; Shastry, Lalita G; Cossaboom, Caitlin M; White, Jennifer L; Machesky, Kimberly D; Kosoy, Olga; Girone, Kyle; Klena, John D; Backenson, Bryon P; Gould, Carolyn V; Lind, Leah; Hieronimus, Arielle; Gaines, David N (2022-03-21). "Tick-borne encephalitis among US travellers, 2010–20". Journal of Travel Medicine. 29 (2): taab167. doi: 10.1093/jtm/taab167 . ISSN   1195-1982. PMID   34741518.
  13. ↑ "cipm.ncsu.edu" . Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Madison-Antenucci, Susan; Kramer, Laura D.; Gebhardt, Linda L.; Kauffman, Elizabeth (2020-03-18). "Emerging Tick-Borne Diseases". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 33 (2): e00083–18. doi:10.1128/CMR.00083-18. ISSN   0893-8512. PMC   6941843 . PMID   31896541.
  15. ↑ Bush, Larry M.; Vazquez-Pertejo, Maria T. (May 2018). "Tick borne illness—Lyme disease". Disease-a-Month. 64 (5): 195–212. doi:10.1016/j.disamonth.2018.01.007. PMID   29402399.
  16. 1 2 3 Pace, Emma J.; O'Reilly, Matthew (2020-05-01). "Tickborne Diseases: Diagnosis and Management". American Family Physician. 101 (9): 530–540. ISSN   1532-0650. PMID   32352736.
  17. 1 2 Wikel, Stephen (2018-06-20). "Ticks and Tick-Borne Infections: Complex Ecology, Agents, and Host Interactions". Veterinary Sciences. 5 (2): 60. doi: 10.3390/vetsci5020060 . ISSN   2306-7381. PMC   6024845 . PMID   29925800.
  18. ↑ Faulde MK, Robbins RG (February 2008). "Tick infestation risk and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. infection-induced increase in host-finding efficacy of female Ixodes ricinus under natural conditions". Exp. Appl. Acarol. 44 (2): 137–45. doi:10.1007/s10493-008-9131-4. PMID   18273686. S2CID   12440994.
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